THE IMPACT OF RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN & CHILDREN IN VANDEIKYA LGA OF BENUE STATE, NIGERIA

THE IMPACT OF RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN & CHILDREN IN VANDEIKYA LGA OF BENUE STATE, NIGERIA BY JACOB YOL 08123463845 MARCH, 2014 ABSTRACT This study sets out to examine the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. Specifically, the study investigated the causes and patterns of domestic violence and also assessed the impact of domestic violence on women and children and the way forward. The theoretical framework for the study was the conflict theory. The study utilized descriptive survey research design and data was collected using interviews and questionnaires administered to one hundred and eighty (180) respondents. The sample was obtained using cluster sampling techniques. Data was analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Findings show that religious affiliation seriously has an impact on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. It is therefore recommended that, the federal, State and Local government should initiate policies and programmes to alleviate poverty these policies and programes should be well executed to reach the target poor population and so as reduce unemployment rate. Moreso, marital counseling units should be set up to help couples with marital problems and the ministry of women affairs and other parastatals should help bridge the gap between men and women in order to enhance peaceful co-existence devoid of marital violence in the society. TABLE OF CONTENT Title Page…………………………………………………………………. i Table of Contents………………………………………………………… ii List of Tables……………………………………………………………… iii Abstract……………………………………………………………………. iv CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………. 1 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem……………………….….. 2 1.3 Research Questions…………………………………………..…… 3 1.4 Objective of the Study…………………………………………….. 4 1.4.1 General Objective………………………………………………….. . 4 1.4.2 Specific Objectives………………………………………………… 4 1.5 Significance of the Study…………………………………………. 6 1.6 Scope of the Study………………………………………………….. 6 1.7 Definition of Terms…………………………………………………. 7 CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review 2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………… 8 2.1 The Concept of Domestic Violence………………………..……. 8 2.2 Forms of Domestic Violence………………………………….…… 10 2.3 The Causes of Domestic Violence……………………………...... 12 2.4 The Impact of Domestic Violence on Women……………….. …18 2.5 The Impact of Religious Affiliation on Domestic Violence against Women and Children…………………………………… .21 2.6 Measures of Controlling Domestic Violence…………………. 22 2.7 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………. 23 2.7.1 Structural Functionalism…………..…………………………… 24 2.7.2 Conflict Theory…………………………………………………… …25 CHAPTER THREE: Methodology 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….. 29 3.2 Study Area……………………………………………………………. 29 3.3 Population of Study……………………………………………….… 31 3.4 Sampling Procedures……………………………………………….. 32 3.5 Questionnaire Instrument………………………………………... 32 3.5.2 Interview Instrument……………………………………………… 33 3.6 Method of Data Analysis………………………………………….. 34 3.7 Limitation…………………………………………………………..… 34 CHAPTER FOUR: Data Presentation and Analysis 4.0 Introduction………………………………………………………… 36 4.1 Socio-Demographic Attributes of Respondents……………. 36 4.2 The Impact of Religious Affiliation on Domestic Violence against Women and Children………………………………….. 41 4.3 The Common Pattern of Domestic Violence against Women and Children in Vandeikya…………………………………….. 43 4.4 Discussion of Findings………………………………………….. 49 CHAPTER FIVE: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 Summary……………………………………………………………. 52 5.2 Conclusion………………………………………………………….. 53 5.3 Recommendation………………………………………………….. 54   LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Sex Distribution of Respondents Table 4.2: Age Distribution of Respondents Table 4.3: Occupational Distribution of Respondents Table 4.4: Educational Distribution of Respondents Table 4.5: Religious Affiliation of Respondents Table 4.6: Marital Distribution of Respondents Table 4.7: Causes of Domestic Violence against Women and Children Table 4.8: Does Religious Affiliation facilitate Domestic Violence Table 4.9: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Marital Instability Table 4.10: The Effects of domestic Violence on the Health of Women and Children Table 4.11: Does Domestic Violence Affects the Growth and Development of Women and Children CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Domestic violence against women and children refers to the unfair treatment of women in the family to gain a particular advantage which put women and children in a disadvantaged position. Over three decades now, numerous cases of women’s rights, violence such as acid baths, murder of women, rape, widow abuse and physical assaults have occurred in Nigeria. Unfortunately, it is only extreme cases of women’s rights violent which results in death or permanent disability that earn the media attention and the police interests. Critical cases like female genital mutilation, wife battery, marital rape, sexual harassment, verbal and emotional abuse, incest, termination of employment as a result of pregnancy etc. are considered problematic enough to be highlighted in the media as a result to be taken seriously by the police. More so, the victims of violence, especially domestic violence and rape, hardly are reported to the appropriate authorities. For instance, wife battery is considered a private affair between husband and wife. Moreover, the tradition or culture and religious belief in Nigeria is a typical patriarchal society which sees the wife as a property of her husband, who has moral right to beat her as penalty for insubordination. Domestic violence against women and children has been in existence since time immemorial. As a matter of fact it is experienced in all ramifications with varying degree of severity and it cut across various spheres of the society. it is also pertinent that domestic violence against women and children without doubt or mixing words is enshrined in the culture and religious parameters of every society, thus making it unduly difficult for them (women) to liberate themselves from the domestic violence. It is in view of this fact that, the study is aimed at unfolding the factors or conditions upon which domestic violence against women and children is hinged upon, with a view to proffering possible solution on domestic violence against women and children in the society in general and Vandeikya local government in particular. 1.2 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM Domestic violence against women and children remains the greatest challenge and phenomenon demanding absolute and urgent attention. The effects of domestic violence on women and children have attracted great concern over the years. It is important to note that domestic violence against women and children has become prevalent in the society especially in Benue State and Vandeikya local government area in particular, it is a scourge that is no just worrisome but also dangerous. However, there have been so much social and economic effects and even psychological effects on women and children who are domestically abused by men. Inspite of several campaigns by different organizations, the government, Non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) and Christian communities, domestic violence still persists especially in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. The phenomenon of domestic violence against women and children constitutes great problem and has hindered the gap between men and women in families, probably due to the role religious affiliation plays in facilitating the discrimination. This has become a tremendous social problem in Nigeria, infact Africa and beyond. It is in the light of the foregoing that the researcher deemed it pertinent to undertake a study on the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State, so as to understand the phenomenon better with a view of suggesting appropriate measures to forestall the consequences of domestic violence against women and children in the society. 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The research intends to make use of the following questions 1. What are the causes of domestic violence in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State? 2. What are the common patterns of domestic violence against woman and children that exist in Vandeikya local government? 3. What is the impact of religious affiliations on domestic violence in Vandeikya? 4. What are the effects of domestic violence on women and children in Vandeikya? 5. What are the possible ways of eliminating or reducing domestic violence against women and children in the society? 1.4 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY 1.4.1 General Objective The general objective of the study is to examine the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in the society. 1.4.2 Specific Objectives The specific objectives of this research include: i. To identify the causes of domestic violence on women and children. ii. To determine the common patterns of domestic violence that exist in the area. iii. To assess the effects of domestic violence on women and children. iv. To suggest possible ways of reducing or eliminating domestic violence against women and children in the society.   1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The study is significant in contributing to the existing knowledge about domestic violence. The study will unveil the causes of domestic violence which will help the government, non-governmental organizations and other parastatals to minimise incidence of domestic violence in the society. The study is aimed at suggesting ways and possible results that may lead to the improvement in the well-being of a greater percentage of the population especially the female folks. It may also be of immense benefits to researchers, students as well as policy makers in the area. It will also serve as reference point for further research in the area. The study is particularly significant to the researcher as part of the partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc Hons) in Sociology. 1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study set out to investigate impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. The study would have had a wider coverage but due to the high cost involved in carrying out such a study, its coverage has been narrowed down to Vandeikya local government area of Benue State.   1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS Religion: Religion is a system of beliefs and practices (rituals) based on some sacred or supernatural realm that guides human behaviour, giving meaning to life and unites believers into a single moral community (Durkheim, 1995). Gender: Gender is the positioning of women and women in the society. This is the consideration of dissimilar interest between men and women (Rowbotha, 1992). Domestic Violence: Domestic violence can be defined as the maltreatment or molestation of the female counterparts by the male counterparts in the society.   CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter is aimed at reviewing various literatures on domestic violence. It is true that the incidence of domestic violence is a wide spread occurrence affecting majority of women and children in our society. Hence in this literature review, the researcher intends to bring out the causal factors and also drawing up the role of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children, measures of controlling domestic violence will also be addressed and theoretical framework. 2.1 THE CONCEPT OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE The issue of domestic violence is a global phenomenon that occurs in all strata of society, occupation, professions and income groups irrespective of colour, religion and knowledge. As offensive as it is, cases of domestic violence mostly go unheard, very much unreported and under-documented. Moreso, its prevalence is also under-estimated around the world due to this singular reason of under-reporting. Domestic violence has devastating physical, financial and social effects on women and children in the society According to Melliech (2001), Domestic violence refers to assaultive or abusive behaviour committed by a man against a woman with whom he has intimate sexual cohabiting or marital relationship. It is so after labelled with various names such as wife abuse, spousal abuse and conjugal or family. Meena (1997), also considered domestic violence as various forms of abuse meted on women like wife beating, acid bath, pushing arm twisting, stabbing, abuse, ear-twisting among others. In same vein Atinmo in Oyekanmi (1997) has defined domestic violence as any act of aggression directed by a husband against his wife. It covers incidence of punching, beating, slapping, stabbing, acid bath and throwing boiling water which causes injury or death. Domestic violence against women and children is a global problem, with rape, assault, wife battery and sexual harassment as obvious manifestation. The United Nations (UN) and other world bodies recognise these acts as a gross violation of human rights (Oyekanmi, 1997). Other writers as Payne and Hahn (1993) have identified psychological forms of domestic violence, which are usually in form of emotional abuse, verbal attacks, threats of violence and communication which leaves indelible scars on the mind of the victims. Psychology believe that aside from physical harm of rape , a great amount of emotional damage may occur, such damage stems from the concept of broken trust. They further believed that survival of such violence suffer from post traumatic stress syndrome. They can have anxiety and sleepless nights (Payne and Hahn, 1998: 593). From the foregoing, one could therefore consider domestic violence as any act that is deliberately or intentionally done by a man to injure, hurt, humiliate, deprive, sexually, emotionally, politically or religiously. Domestic violence been a social global phenomenon constitute a social problem that need to addressed or tackled to harness development in our communities. 2.2 FORMS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Domestic violence is more common than we thought. It occurs in all occupation, profession and income groups. It occurs because a man doesn’t understand his emotions or his beliefs (Melliech, 2001) maintained therefore that domestic violence takes many forms including but not limited to the following: Physical Abuse Physical abuse includes pushing, slapping, punching, chocking, killing, breaking bones, throwing objet s, abandoning her in an unsafe place, deprivation of food, water, clothing, confining her in a closet room or building, locking her out of her home, using weapons against her, murder etc Emotional Abuse This may include withdrawal of affection, jealousy, denial of her rights to feelings or emotions put downs, constant criticisms, name calling, isolating her from friends and family, controlling her activities, denying her any personal pleasures or outside interest, destruction of properties, pets or treasured objects . Threats to harm friends or family, forcing her to watch her children being abused without being allowed to intervene, making her account for every minute, every action, controlling her with fear, threats of suicide, threats on her life. Economic Abuse The economic abuse or violence include; allowing a woman to have no money of her own, no money for emergencies, not even her own earnings, forcing her to account for and justify all money or improve her earning capacity. Religious or Spiritual Abuse This may include; breaking down ones beliefs system (cultural or religious), being punished or ridiculed for ones beliefs, preventing the practice of beliefs. Similarly, Griffiths (1985) maintained that domestic violence could occur in many forms. These include; physical, sexual, psychological, property destruction and misuse of power. The physical battery involves grabbing, shaking, shoving, kicking, punching or pinching genital areas or forcing the person into a sexual act which they dislike. The psychological battery involves swearing or putting the other person down, which poses threat to her well-being when this occurs, the person is constantly reminded that ‘what happened once before can easily happen to you again’. The threats may involve the use of violence or controlling the other person by taking away things (such as custody of children, use of car). Destruction of property is another form of domestic violence. Objects which are emotionally important to the person are destroyed in other to show the potential destruction power the battery has over the person. According to the United Nations (1992) domestic violence otherwise referred to as wife battery may take the form of physical and sexual violations, such as punching, chocking, stabbing, scolding, burning with water, rape and acid bath or setting ablaze, the result of which can range from bruising to death. Oyekanmi (1997) in a manner Copelon (1994) admitted that domestic violence is a form of torture that takes the form of punching, kicking, beating, acid bath etc. Domestic violence therefore, is a pattern which develops over time. A man doesn’t stop violence by saying we won’t do it again. It becomes controlled only after a man learns about his challenges and his false beliefs about marriage and learns how to negotiate conflicts. 2.3 THE CAUSES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE There are so many causes of domestic violence in our society and so many reasons have been brought forward to explain the prevalence or the problem of this dirty act in our society. This according to Wanga (2004) include cultural perceptions, poverty, hunger, difficulties with sleep, menstrual cycle mood changes, feelings of frustration and inadequacy personality disorder, substance abuse (abuse of alcohol), brain tumour, head injury, personality changes and rarely mental retardation among others. Mojoyinola (2006) maintained that, domestic violence maybe a factor of individual intolerance, incompatibility, selfish approach to issues, immaturity, lack of moral standards or lack of fear of God. Other causes of domestic violence include failure to fulfill financial obligations to wife and children, poverty, denial of sexual intercourse, infidelity, disrespect and social vices. Cultural Perception Culture refers to the way of life of the people. According to Tylor, one of the fathers of modern Anthropology, culture is the complex whole of man’s acquisitions of knowledge, words, beliefs, acts, customs, technology etc. that are shared and transmitted from generation to generation (Tylor, 1967: 477). Culture varies within space and time, this implies that, it is not static but dynamic to suit the wishes of the dominant group in the society, it is essentially learned and shared. Most culture of the world has promoted wife battery or domestic violence and accepted it as a way of correcting or curtailing the excesses of woman. Courts (1992) reported that in some cultures domestic violence is regarded as good conduct, social gender conformity and culturally expected. The men batter their wives as a physical reprimand. The battery happens occasionally and causes the women no serious or permanent injury. Where such behaviour is customary, it is viewed as remarkable. For example in Papua New guinea, this has a pre-dominantly patrilineal culture, in which wives are socially, culturally and economically dependent on their husbands. Domestic violence most especially, the form of beating is common that it is seen as a formal part of married life (Davies, 1993). Also, in specific societies like Ranckand Toft certain level of family violence is considered to be normal (Ritchers, 1994). In Nigeria according to Okagbua (1996) domestic violence is both prevalent and persistent because, the society subscribes to twin philosophers, first that the wife is subordinate to her husband, and secondly, owing to the acceptance of a private/ public dichotomy which renders people homes and family life relatively immune to social controls, intervention and sanctions (Okagbue, 1996: 12). Domestic violence is thus regarded as a family problem to be settled in the privacy of the home. The question is how can the effects of this act be measured and remedied when it is kept out of public scrutiny. Among the Yoruba women of Nigeria, Iman (1989) stressed the demand of tradition on them to ensure the success of their marriage through submission to their husbands even if the husband beat them. This is not a different case in the Tiv society. The idea is not different. the men are considered to be the head and can at will violate or batter a woman as a form of correction and this sometimes leaves indelible marks on the victim. Then in cultures where such abuse is not considered acceptable, many individuals adopt it as a violent code of conduct. The irrational thinking of men in this regard is shocking. According to South African weekly mail and Guardian, a study in the cape peninsula found that the majority of men who claimed that they do not abuse their mates felt that hitting a woman was acceptable and that such does not constitute violence. Evidently, such a raped view often brings in childhood. In Britain for instance, a study shows that 75% of boys aged eleven and twelve feel that it is acceptable for a man to hit a woman if he is provoked (LEDAP, 2001) (Awake, 2001). Apart from cultural acceptability of domestic violence against women and children in most cultures of the world, there are other factors that lead to domestic violence in the society. Economic Factor (Poverty) The economic factor also plays a significant role in the cause of domestic violence in our society. The economic factor is a variable that encompasses poverty, lost of jobs, unemployment etc. In most societies, studies have revealed that, male violence against women is highly related to social stress such as poverty and economic loss (Steinetza, 1988, Abraham, 1995). LEDAP (2001) asserts that, the worsening economic situation in the country has led to lower standard of living, as most men are unable to provide for the family. The woman is left to take care of the home. In order to compensate for not contributing for the up keep of the family also to compensate for being tossed around in the office and prove that they are real men, most men resort to hitting the woman to stamp his mark of authority over the woman. According to Renvioze (1995) Stress and role frustration occasioned by economic and social disadvantage and underdevelopment through subsistence living induce violence. This explains why it is prevalent among rural dwellers who are mostly peasants. In Serbian village according to Richer (1994: 84) peasants and their wives alike consider domestic violence as the husband rights as head of the family. Also, writers have pointed out that, unemployment, poverty, inelastic income base, inflation and hunger affects the man’s sense of manhood thereby increase his propensity towards violence (Okpeh, 2002). It is also the observation of Okpeh (2002) that, the breakdown of economic network dismally affects the states of most men as bread winners of their families and the only way they demonstrate that they are still in charge of the family is to visit the wife with violence (Okpeh, 2002). Socialization Domestic violence is also influenced by what one experienced, learnt from the past, most of physically abused men were themselves raised in abusive manner/families. Domestic violence therefore is learned behaviour, in order words abusive husband who learned violence from his father or mother would probably pass it to his son (Strans et al, 1980) in light of the above, Abraham (1995) asserts that children learn violence behaviour when they see their parents or significant others resolving problems by violence. The children then model their role of violent interpersonal behaviour when they themselves become parents. According to Eyroetsch in Awake (2001) a male who is raised in such an environment can absorb his father’s contempt for women very early in life. This influence him as he grows up (LEADAP, 2001) (Awake, 2001) In African societies, men are particularly socialized to be aggressive, masculinity and girls to be caring and submissive as Antimo stressed, women are socialized to have feeble feelings, kindness, tenderness and there is institutional support in the family to underscore these roles. In a male dominated culture, such as Tiv, behaviour glorifying male superiority and manifest itself in the subjugation of women in all forms of domestic violence and in wife battery in particular. Therefore, there is social differentiation rooted in the predominate mode of socialization in society beginning from the elementary system as family to the school system, other agencies of social interaction for example, the church, social organization, government, all reinforcing the supremacy ideology that man is superior to woman. Children internalize the socialization and its impacts on them and this tends to influence their action during adulthood (Oyekanmi, 1997).   Substance Abuse Other factors such as intake of alcohol and drugs also induce violence in the family. Renvoize agrees with this view, in his research, he found that external factors such as alcohol and drugs influence domestic violence situation in the family (Renvoize, 1975). It has been observed that when men consume alcohol and drugs they are tensed up and any slight provocation or mistake results to violating of their wives. Sexual Factor Another reason for domestic violence is sometimes stem from the fact that, when the woman refuses the man’s sexual demands which are sometimes unreasonable, it results to the violence to show the woman that traditionally he is the head and can decide even in her sexual favours. It could also be observed that in her house, the father decides for her in marriage, the husband decides and when he dies the son decides for her. 2.4 THE IMPACT OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON WOMEN The fact that this act of domestic violence is anti-development, is very disputable. Francis (2005), Awoyemi (2005) and Ogunseye (2004). A monography from the National Clearing House on Domestic violence in the United States of America (1985) list some health problem suffered by some victims of domestic violence. This domestic violence has various negative effects ranging from physical to psychological well-being, these abused women therefore suffer from health and ramifications of her life-health, development and economic wise. Domestic violence limits a woman’s ability to participate effectively in the development of her country (Knapp, 2001). The implication of domestic violence on the victims is the fact that the victims are physically affected as it causes injuries like broken jaw, mouth, swollen faces or hands, broken hands, black eyes, broken spine which has left some women on wheel chairs. An example was given of a man and his wife staying at gyado villa in Makurdi metropolis who at the provocation of the wife hit her which resulted to spine broken and she ended up on a wheel chair. It is a major cause of disability and sometimes death. There is a recent case in the newspaper where the man beat the woman and left her disable with three children (27:05:2013) and a case of a bride been strangled to death after seven days of marriage in Kano State (12:06:2013). This can cause permanent injury and sometimes lead to death. Emotionally and psychologically it was noted that it raises the anxiety of women and also make them depressed and somatic. Economically, it saps women’s energy, makes them disabled such that they are not physically and emotionally fit to carry out socio-economic activities like trading, farming, academic programmes. Martins (1978) and Shwarts (1989) also suggested that one of the implications of wife battery or domestic violence is that, it undermines women’s confidence; the woman may lose herself confidence completely, comprises their health saps their energy therefore deprives society of woman’s full participation in both economic and social activities. It is believed that the society starts from a healthy family, a family that is destabilized by domestic violence will produce uncontrollable and immoral children who will become bad eggs and this will threaten the stability, safety and peace in the society. This will affect the society socially and economically, a society with high number of disabled women as a result to domestic violence will suffer economic setbacks, for women are the back bone in economic development in any given society. Domestic violence does not only entails suffering and ill-health for those directly involved, it also lead to major financial strains on society with regards to medical care, the judicial system, the social services, social insurances, unemployment, production loss, and so on. Therefore, domestic violence is an enormous. The most painful aspect of it is its tendency to affect not just the victims (women) but also extend its effects to all facets of the society. The implications of domestic violence are manifold and ranges from the victims themselves to the larger society. In the first place, it is an act of cowardice for a man to visit violence on a woman. It is morally indecent, quite uncivilized and of course in human and beyond acceptable standards of social relations. Many experts have cautioned against domestic violence against woman because it cause damages in diverse ways which includes miscarriages where the victim is pregnant and sometimes death where victims suffer tremendous physical damage to vital organs. Similarly, it is dangerous to abuse a woman in front of her children, because they have the propensity to internalise this behaviour which will manifest itself in later part of his life in the case of the female children, they may develop a negative feeling of the opposite sex which may make them even not to marry or be aggressive which predisposes them towards violence generally. For the society in general, violence against women and children has the potential to create disorder and chaos in the society, a society where general violence is the rule than the exception. This tendency could produce a generation of savages who cross gender relations is marked by bizarre violence. Also the children of such a society would be hyper-active in all ways not just in cross gender relations thereby making the society a violence prone with negative results. Unless the menace of domestic violence is controlled, societal growth and sustainable development would never be attained in our societies thereby paving ways from perpetual underdevelopment. 2.5 THE IMPACT OF RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN Religious affiliation no doubt plays significant roles on domestic violence against women and children in the society. Both Christianity and Islamic religions have over the decades preached women’s submission to their husbands in all ramifications. These however, gave men the impetus to ride or lord over women (Melliech, 2001). It is important to note here that, the religious bodies only states emphatically women’s submission to men and not to be violated by men. It is the misinterpretation of the doctrine that triggers domestic violence against women. Religious affiliation has also impacted on domestic violence against women and children, this is because its portrays some level of inequality between men and women by stating that women should be submissive to their husbands, this explains why the Islamic religion permits marrying of four wives (women) (Knapp, 2001). This is a clear indication that religious affiliations indirectly played a significant role in domestic violence against women and children as men are portrayed as heads and women and children as subordinates. The above scenario has unravelled the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence in the society. 2.6 MEASURES OF CONTROLLING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Despite the grievous implications of domestic violence on women and children in the society, a lot of efforts have been made by both the national and international bodies in combating the menace of domestic violence on women and children. According to Amaechi (2001), the legal strategies must be formulated and action taken as on of the most effective means of bringing domestic violence to an end. The criminal Justice System should therefore have a change of attitude towards the cases of domestic violence. Also according to “Walking Towards Gender Equality” (1993-1995) condoms there should be an elaborate awareness campaign to educate the general public on the evils of discriminatory practices, the aim of this campaign will be given men a new orientation so as to re-direct their attitude towards women on the basis of equality. Also will be sensitized and conscientized about their entitlement in life. This will remove ignorance on the part of women as to stop portraying themselves as being less than the men. Similarly, Benokaitis (1996) states that one of the measures of controlling domestic violence is the fact that, women should be sensitized to respect their husbands, show them love and respect and embrace their relations especially mother-in-laws. Also, there is a paper presented at National Workshop on “Domestic Violence against Women” in 2001 at Top Rank Hotel Abuja, which states clearly that cases of Domestic Violence should be made public so that it can be discussed and discouraged. It should be made public so that it could be treated as a social problem, women who felt ashamed of reporting such cases should come out boldly to defend their rights. 2.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The nature of social reality is so complex that, every social phenomenon is subjected to various analysis and interpretastions depending on which of the theoretical realm one falls. There are as many theories as there are phenomena. However, two dominant theoretical perspectives in sociology are examined. This helps to establish which of the theories suitably explain the social phenomenon under study. These are structural functionalism and conflict theory. 2.7.1 STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM The major proponents of this theory include August Comte, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons (Good, 1986). The functionalist theory argues that, for society to be in order, equilibrium or at peace, the institutions of the society which are interrelated and interdependent must work hand in hand to perform their roles. The functionalist views the family as the foundation of any society. It is the family that makes it possible for any society to raise the collective life and social order that sustains it. some of these functions can be performed by other institutions, but the family appears to perform them most effectively. These functions may include socialization, social placement, care and protection, emotional support, social control etc.   Limitations The main limitation of functionalist theory is that, it turns to stress the factors that had social cohesion at the expense of those producing division, conflict and change. The fact that functionalism is against change means that, it cannot explain domestic violence against women and children in the society. The functionalist have also been criticized on their ignorance as differing interest of the components and their members in the society that brings about conflict between them than the intended smooth running of society. Despite the above criticism, it can still be used to analyze the social phenomenon under study because it looks at the functions of the various organs of the social system to maintenance of a whole. 2.7.2 THE CONFLICT THEORY The conflict theorist assumes that the social institution do not benefit all members of the society. They argue that in the family, men have more power than the women because of the social and cultural construct of the society. On the other hand, parents have more power than the children. The conflict theorist sees conflict as endemic in the society and contends that, domestic violence should be seen in terms of dominance and control. It is one means by which men reinforce their power over women. Furthermore, the conflict theorist view family as a whole as a basic unit of inequality and exploitation and that the larger society only draws its legacy from the working of the family. Nevertheless, despite the obvious inequalities in domestic violence cases, victims of such assaults are often accused of provoking the abusive behaviours. In the case of domestic violence, the conflict theorists emphasizes that blaming the victim is but another reflection of man’s power over women. They further admit that, it is the dominance and exploitative nature of men in the family that leads to such conflicts as class struggle and domestic violence in the family. Marx’s collaborator, Engels (1884) noted that the beginning of domination of men over women in the early agrarian societies, when men conceived the need for ownership of property and to also pass it unto his offspring. This then prompted formal marriage which to men was upright ownership of the women as property. In a nutshell, conflict theorists sees conflict in positive light, they contend that in all societies conflict is inevitable i.e in avoidable, but it further brings about developmental change. Criticisms Many scholars argued against the conflict theory, that it is not all societies that conflict may bring or produce desired change. Also, the conflict theorists have been criticized on their position that inequality can only be over come by change to the socialist system of government. In this research work therefore, the researcher has adopted the conflict theory in explaining domestic violence against women and children and its social effects on the society. It is undoubtedly true that all socializations in families are based on cultural, traditional and customary norms which are reinforced by the parents. These cultural norms therefore set the men on top as the owners of the means of production, power and master which subsequently encourage domination and exploitation of women. This situation brings about abuse of women without the society frowning at it rather it is seen in positive light as a means of discipline and control. The incidence of domestic violence is an endemic occurrence in all societies. It is also perpetual through gross inequality and domination of the men folk, which almost all cultures inculcate in their younger ones, who continue the trend as they grow. But the conflict scholars propose a radical change from the economic system of capitalism, which they see as the only means by which class domination and exploitation can be terminated and exploitation can be terminated. The conflict theorists in their final analysis proposed the socialist system to be classless and ideal. Most importantly, the conflict theory notifies us of an impending problem of inequality and domination in the society that is inevitably experienced. This fact alone prepares the mind of the members of the society to brace for solutions to the problems of society especially domestic violence. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter deals with the methodology employed in the collection of data. Here, emphasis will be laid on the instrument of data collection, the study area, sampling procedure, the method of data analysis, field experience and problem encountered respectively. 3.2 STUDY AREA Vandeikya Local Government Area was carved out of the then Gboko division on the 28th August, 1976 by the then Head of State General Murtala Ramat Mohammed. This was done during the creation of the 19 States which saw Benue created out of the then Benue-Plateau. Vandeikya local government is located in the Southern part of Benue State. It shares boundaries with Cross-River State in the South, Ushongu local government area in the North, Kwande local government area in the East and Konshisha local government area in the West. The geographical spread of the local government area covers a land mass of about 1021 Km2. This location has placed the local government within the vegetational belt of Guinea Savannah which is a transitional zone between the Sahara Savannah in the North and the thick ram forest of the South East Zone. The local government area also experiences two distinctive climatic conditions. The dry and wet seasons. The dry season starts from late October and terminates in the mid April. And on the other hand, the wet season begins from the mid-April and terminates late October with average rainfall range of 60-70 inches per annum. Vandeikya like any other local government area in the State is completely rural with little or no infrastructural facilities. The inhabitants are predominantly farmers. The prevailing housing type is the traditional grass thatched round hut in a scattered settlement pattern with various degrees of urbanized villages, organized in a nuclear pattern. The local government area has a population of about 230,120. The male population is 114811 while the female population is made up of 115309, according to the 2006 population census. The population is divided into 12 administrative units called council wards. The population also has two (2) State constituencies viz- Kyan and Tiev constituencies. Kyan has six council wards which includes Mbakyaha, Mbagbam, Mbajor, Tsembe, Mbadede and Mbagbera while Tiev has Mbakange, Ningev, Mbayongo, Mbatyough, Nuuman-Mbagba and Township wards. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy in the local government with over 80% of the population directly employed in agricultural production. The main crops include Yam, Cassava, Palm produce, Guinea-Corn, Groundnut, rich and Livestock is relatively in small scale. In terms of commerce, the local government has two banks, First Bank and Kunav Community Bank. There are also major markets in the local government these are; Agbo, Ihugh, Tsar, Koti-Yough and Gbem markets, others are Agu, Agidi, Betse, Adeiongo, Anongu, Tortive and Mede. These markets provide outlets fro sale of agricultural produce. There are also high degree of external trade involving commodities like Garri, Rice, Cassava flour, Dry Yam flour, Soya beans, Groundnut and Oranges in these markets. It attracts traders from Jos, Kano, Calabar, Onitsha and Aba. There also exist on very significant scale business activities like Rice Milling, Blocks Making, Woodwork, Blacksmithing and retail shop holdings. There are also claims of mineral deposit such as Limestone, Kaolin, Natural Gas, Glass Sand, Zinc etc. Such minerals have not been exploited for the benefit of the people as such they remain in their latent form. The local government area is linked with the outside world through a trunk “A” Federal road which runs from Calabar through the local government to the Northern States of the country. Another road runs through Ihugh and terminates at Tse Mkar. These network of road made the local government area easily accessible. 3.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY Although the entire population of Vandeikya local government area is over 230,120 persons according to the 2006 population census, due to time and other resource constraints, only 180 respondents were randomly selected to represent the entire population. This population has been drawn from the council wards that form the clusters of this study. The population comprises of adult men, women and youths of the study area. 3.4 SAMPLING PROCEDURES This study employed cluster sampling procedures to select respondents. Cluster sampling has to do with the division of the total population into relatively small heterogenous groups known as clusters. For this reason, three groups were selected from Tiev constituencies respectively. Those selected in Kyan were from Mbakyaha, Tsambe and Mbadede, while those sampled in Tiev were Mbakaange, Ninger and Mbayongo. In each cluster 30 respondents were randomly selected to answer the questionnaires. A total of twelve (12) key informants were selected for interview, that is two (2) key informants were selected from each council ward, this makes up a total of twelve (12) key informants for the interview method. This segment of respondents is different from the questionnaire method. 3.5 QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUMENT This questionnaire comprises both closed ended and open ended questions which is divided into Section “A” and “B”. The closed ended questions captured questions that the researcher that have some knowledge of their options while the open ended questions were the ones more informations were needed to be obtained by the investigation. Section “A” bordered on the socio-demographic variables of respondents. These questions were intended to elicit on the Sex, Age, Occupation, Educational Qualification, Marital Status and Religion of respondents which were deemed relevant. Apart from the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, Section “B” sought to obtain detailed information on the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children is the area under study. The questionnaire was administered to the selected respondents in the selected council wards of Vandeikya local government area such as Tsambe, Mbadede, Mbakyaha, Mbakaange, Ningev and Mbayongo. Here 30 respondents were randomly selected, thus, a total of 180 respondents were selected to answer the questions in the questionnaires. The population comprise of adult men, women and youth of the area. 3.5.2 INTERVIEW INSTRUMENT The relevance of this technique to the study is to grant the researcher the opportunity to adjust, adopt and alter the questions so as to obtain more detailed information. The method avoids the chances of misinterpretation and misleading questions. Two (2) key informants from each cluster or council ward were selected. This brought the number of interviews to 12. This instrument also enabled the study to cross check the responses gathered through the questionnaires. The total key informants studied altogether is twelve (12) key informants. 3.6 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS The data collected will be analyzed with the use of both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Simple percentage tables will be used in analyzing the data. This is to take the percentage of the respondents that hold a particular view about the item/issues under study. A descriptive analysis will also be used, the combination of these two methods will give room for better inference and transformation of information to percentages which will facilitate statistical manipulation. 3.7 LIMITATION OF STUDY In the course of this study, certain problems were encountered. In all scientific researches especially those in the social sciences where emphasis is laid more on human behaviour, it is an inevitable situation. However, those limitations were tactically managed by the researcher in order to give this study its desired validity. There was a problem of apathy by some respondents to participate and contribute to the study by way of providing the needed information. Some felt insecure with any answer they gave. This was always solved through tactful explanation that their responses would be held with the strictest confidence and only for academic purposes. Another problem was the inability of the researcher to extend his interview to cover substantive parts of the study area due to inadequate time factor. Lastly, lack of finance was another limiting factor which posed a great challenge to the carrying out of this study. The inability of the researcher to mobilize adequate funds hindered him from getting in touch with all the nooks and crannies of the area under study. However, the above problems did not invalidate the result of the study because the researcher was able to select a representative sample that was adequately managed within the available recourses at his disposal. CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter is concerned with the presentation of data for the study essentially the demographic data as well as the general information on the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against woman and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. The data is presented in line with the objectives of the study. The presentation and analysis is based on one hundred and twenty (120) questionnaires that were returned out of the one hundred and eighty (180) questionnaires of the respondents. 4.1 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES OF RESPONDENTS In this section, various demographic variables of respondents deemed relevant were presented; these include sex, age, marital status, educational qualification, occupation and religious affiliation of respondents. Table 4.1: Sex Distribution of Respondents Sex Frequency Percentage (%) Male 45 37.5 Female 74 62.5 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 Table 4.1 above shows the sex distribution of respondents. The data shows that (37.50%) of the respondents were males while that of the female respondents were (62.59%). This indicates that the female were more represented than males, also, women are more prone to the practice of domestic violence than the male counter part therefore, and they are more willing to give information in order to tackle the phenomenon of domestic violence against women in the society. Table 4.2: Age Distribution of Respondents Age Frequency Percentage (%) 20-30 30 25.00 31-40 50 41.66 41-50 25 20.88 51 and, above 15 12.5 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 From the above table, (25%) of the respondents fall under the age category of 20-30, (41.66%) fall under the ages of 31-40 years, on the other hand (20.88%) of respondents belong to the age category of 41-50 years, while (12.5%) of the respondents fall under the category of 51 years and above. The implication of this findings shows that, the respondents that took part in this study are matured adults; therefore, they are knowledgeable and competent in giving information about domestic violence. Table 4.3: Occupational Distribution of Respondents Occupation Frequency Percentage (%) Farmer 45 37.5 Civil Servant 20 16.5 Business Man/Woman 13 10.83 Unemployed 15 12.5 Students 27 23.00 Total 120 100 Field Survey, 2013 The above table shows the occupational distribution of respondents. The data shows that (37.5%) of the respondents are farmers, (16.5%) are civil servants, also the data indicates that (10.88%) of the respondents and businessmen and women. The data went further to show that (12.5%) of the respondents are unemployed and are yet to be gainfully employed, while (23%) of the respondents are students. It is therefore, observed that majority of the people studied are farmers since the study is been carried out in rural areas.   Table 4.4: Educational Distribution of Respondents Educational Qualification Frequency Percentage (%) Primary 27 22.5 Secondary 45 37.5 Tertiary 18 15.00 Non-Formal Education 30 25.00 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The data above shows the educational qualification of the respondents, the data indicates that (22.5%) of the respondent have attained Primary school education and a significant number of respondents comprises of (37.5%) acquired Secondary education while a minority of (15%) of the respondents has tertiary education. On the other hand, (25%) of the respondents have Secondary education and are more than other categories, an indication that majority of the respondents acquired different forms of education and minority of the respondents are not formally educated.   Table 4.5: Religious Affiliation of Respondents Religion Frequency Percentage (%) Christianity 65 54.16 Islam 16 13.33 Traditional Religion 39 32.5 Others Specify 00 00 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The data from table 4.5 above shows the religious affiliation of respondents. The data indicates that (54.16%) of the respondents were Christians, whereas (13.33%) of the respondents were Muslims and (32.5%) of the respondents belong to Traditional religion. From the findings above, it is observed that Christians dominate the study area. Table 4.6 Marital Distribution of Respondents Marital Status Frequency Percentage (%) Single 42 35.00 Married 50 41.66 Divorced 15 16.00 Others Specify 09 7.5 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The above data from table 4.6 above shows the statistical distribution of respondents according to their marital status. The data indicates, that (35%) of the respondents were single, while (41.66%) of the respondents were married. On the other hand, (16%) of the respondents were divorced, while (7.5%) of the respondents belong to other category of marital status which include the widowed and widower. The findings show that, the married people participated more and they constitute majority of the respondents probably due to the fact that, they are more experienced in matters of marriage and domestic violence against women and children. Thus, there is a substantial difference in distribution of respondent’s marital status. 4.2 THE IMPACT OF RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN This section present data on the cause of domestic violence, the common pattern of domestic violence against women and children, the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence, the effects of domestic violence on women and children in the society as well as the ways of reducing domestic violence against women and children in the society.   Table 4.7: Causes of Domestic Violence against Women and Children Causes Frequency Percentage (%) Cultural/Religious Belief 32 26.66 Poverty 29 24.16 Socialization 13 10.83 Substance Abuse 23 19.16 And Sexual Matters 14 11.66 Others 09 7.5 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 From the data presented above, it is observed that (26.66%) of the respondents are of the opinion that cultural/religious belief have great influence on domestic violence against women and children (24.16%) of the respondents maintained that, domestic violence is caused by poverty, the data further reveals that, (10.83%) of the respondents held that socialization is the cause of domestic violence against women and children in the society. On the other hand, (19.16%) of the respondents blamed the incident of domestic violence against women and children on substance abuse such as alcohol and other hard drugs like marijuana. (11.66%) of the respondents attributed the cause of domestic violence to sexual advances often leads to domestic violence. (7.5%) of respondents maintained that domestic violence against women and children is caused by legion of other multi-dimensional actors such as infidelity, barrenness and impotency. From the fore-going, it could be inferred that, the basic cause of domestic violence in Vandeikya local government area is the cultural/religious beliefs of members of religious groups that domestic violence is a religious/cultural beliefs. This is revealed in nauty expressions like “Kwase ka abya, ka u ne tseougul u mande tso atema” (A woman is like a hoe that could only be strong when you hammer it), findings shows that, the major cause of domestic violence is cultural/religious beliefs. 4.3 THE COMMON PATTERN OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN VANDEIKYA Findings from oral interview and questionnaires have indicated that the common patterns among the people in Vandeikya local government area. It shows that domestic violence takes various patterns; it could be physical violence such as knocking, ear twisting and kicking etc. the above pattern actually tally with the observation of Griffiths (1985) who contended that physical battery involves, grabbing, shaking, shoving, kicking, punching, choking or striking with any object or weapon. According to him physical force is used to control the other person. Also, findings show that, verbal and emotional abuses are also patterns of domestic violence. This confirms with the daily Herald December 14, 1985’s observation that although verbal and emotional abuse may occur in psychological violence involving swearing or putting the other person down it also involves threats. Another pattern of domestic violence is the use of objects to cause harm on the woman like axe, cutlass, machete, throwing hot water on the woman, slashing their buttocks. This also coincide with Griffiths (1985) that domestic violence involves any forced sexual encounter with a person whether it involves touching, grabbing, pinching genital areas or forcing the person into sexual act which they dislike. This view however, tallies with one of the interviewee’s experience who said “my husband is always beating me whenever I refuse to have sex with him”. The above findings show the various patterns of domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. Table 4.8: Does Religious Affiliation Facilitate Domestic Violence Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Yes 50 41.66 No 40 37.5 Don’t know 25 20.88 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The table above shows the statistical representation of the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in the society. The data shows that (41.66%) of the respondents were of the opinion that women and children experience domestic violence because of the religion they practice. This is because in some societies religion has a great influence on the people and this is mostly common among those who practice the Islamic religion. (37.5%) of the respondents on the other hand do not see religion as a cause of domestic violence against woman and children, they see religion as a way of curbing promiscuity among woman and children and not violence. While (20.88%) of the respondents did not have what to say as to whether religion is a cause of domestic violence against women and children in the society. Table 4.9: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Marital Instability Effects Frequency Percentage (%) Disunity 60 50.00 Divorce 20 16.5 Infidelity 27 23.00 Others 13 10.83 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The above table shows the effects of domestic violence on marital instability. The data shows that, (50%) of the respondents were of the opinion that, domestic violence amount to disunity within the family, (16.5%) of the respondents said domestic violence facilitate the phenomenon of divorce, where as (23%) of respondents were of the view that domestic violence leads to infidelity among married couples within the family system thereby giving room for marital instability. While (10.83%) of the respondents said there are other effects of domestic violence in marital instability such effects include death of victims, psychological truma or emotional problems, injury on victims and many more. By implication, the findings revealed that there are numerous effects of domestic violence on marital instability, thus can be seen from the table above.   Table 4.10: The Effects of Domestic Violence on the Health of Women and Children Effects Frequency Percentage (%) Physical Injuries 30 25.00 Mental/Psychological Problems 45 37.5 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease 27 22.5 Others 18 15.00 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 Table 4.11 shows the effects of domestic violence on the health of women and children. The data indicates that, (25%) of the respondents were of the opinion that, domestic violence against woman and children amount to physical injuries, the study revealed that the act of violence affects the victim physically as it causes injuries like broken jaws, mouth, swollen faces/ hand, broken hand, black eyes, broken spine which has left some women and children on wheel chair and so many disabilities. (37.5%) of the respondents said domestic violence amount to mental or psychological problems, while (22.5%) of the respondents opined that, domestic violence causes pelvic inflammatory disease to victims most especially the women. (15%) of the respondents said there are other health effects of domestic violence against women and children in the society, such as HIV/AIDS, and other sexually transmitted infections. By implication, the findings revealed that majority of the opinion were of the view that domestic violence causes mental or psychological problems to women and children in the society. Table 4.11: Does Domestic Violence Affect the Growth and Development of Women and Children Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Yes 67 56.00 No 42 35.00 Don’t Know 11 9.16 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The data from the above table shows (56%) of the respondents were of the opinion that, domestic violence affect the growth and development of women and children. This is because domestic violence prevents women from the attainment of roles in the society, since the society is patriarchal one, the man see women as inferior to them. It was also discovered in the course of the interview with one of the interviewees that, domestic violence against women has a significant effect on the children; this is because the children sometimes may lose confidence in their parent and psychologically feel sense devastation. Educationally, they lose concentration and it affects their academic work and consequently their career. Socially, they are humiliated before their peers and sometimes lose confidence in the whole scenario of marriage. While (35%) of the respondents rejected that, domestic violence does not prevent women and children growth and development in the society. On the other hand (19.16%) of the respondents are not certain whether domestic violence prevent women and children from attaining their growth and development in the society. 4.4 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The major objective of this study is to assess the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State as well as suggest possible ways of solving this problem. The data was collected, presented and analyzed in line with the above objective. As regards to the causes of domestic violence against women and children in the society, it was discovered that, cultural/religious beliefs, poverty, socialization, substance abuse, sexual matters, patriarchy and many others constitute the major causes of domestic violence against women and children. This is in line with the observation of Counts (1992) who states that, some cultures regards domestic violence as good as a good conduct of discipling the women and children to ensure conformity in the family. Similarly Oyekanmi (1997), Steinmetze (1998), Abraham (1995) variously enumerated the causes of domestic violence against women and children in the society such as religion, patriarchy, poverty, infidelity, barrenness/impotency, socialization, sexual matters, substance abuse as contained in the findings. The study also revealed the patterns of domestic violence against women and children in the society, it was discovered that verbal and emotional abuse are part of the patterns of domestic violence prevalent in the society, acid bath, use of objects to harm the victims, sexual assault such as rape were all established as patterns of domestic violence against women and children, threat and abuse was not left out. In respect to the examination of the effects of domestic violence against women and children in the society, it was discovered that domestic violence leads to disunity within the family system, it also amount to divorce and infidelity, other respondents were of the opinion that, domestic violence leads to death of victims and emotional problems. This coincides with the views of Renvoize (1995) who observed that domestic violence leads to conflicts and inequality in the family system. Furthermore, it was discovered that, domestic violence against women and children nullifies their growth and development. The long standing failure to protect and promote women and children’s right and freedom in the case of violence against women and children is a matter of concern to all states and should be addressed. On the impact of religions affiliation on domestic violence against women and children, it was discovered that, women and children experience domestic violence because of the religion they practiced, this is because in some societies religion has great influence on the people and this is most common among those who practice the Islamic religion. Therefore, it was discovered in this study that religion has a serious influence on domestic violence against women and children in the society since it affect marital instability, the health of women and children as well as the socio-economic growth and development of women and children.   CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 SUMMARY The study was undertaken to examine the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. They study further identified the causes and effects, as well as the common patterns and the possible ways of eliminating domestic violence against women and children in the society. In chapter two relevant literature and theoretical framework were reviewed. This covered the concept of domestic violence, the causes, effects as well as the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children were also reviewed as well as the measures of controlling domestic violence against women and children. The conflict theory was selected as a theoretical framework for the study. A total of 120 respondents were selected from six out of the twelve council wards that make up Vandeikya local government area. There were selected across gender, age, occupational and socio-economic backgrounds and investigated to find out the effects of religious affiliation on domestic violence in the society. Major findings from the study revealed that there are numerous causes of domestic violence such as socialization, cultural and religious beliefs, poverty, sexual matters, substance abuse and many others. The study also revealed that, the high incidence and patterns of domestic violence against women and children has caused untold hardship for Benue State women and these has negative consequences on the capacity of women and children to actively exhibit their potentials. The study also revealed that, domestic violence has serious health problems on women as it leads to HIV/AIDS, injury and inflammatory problems and sometimes even leads to mental disorder and even death. It also retards women’s development both economically and psychologically. The incidence of domestic violence is one of the major causes of marital instability in many homes. These impacts negatively on the society as it also affects the children of victim families which have the potentials of causing negative effects on the society as a whole 5.2 CONCLUSION Based on the findings, the study concludes that, religious affiliation has serious impact on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya L.G.A and the society at large. This is because in Vandeikya L.G.A, religion has great influence on the people. The people consider domestic violence as a way of instilling discipline and conformity. It is on this basis that there is need for recommendations in order to help find lasting solution to the problem of violence against women and children in the society. 5.3 RECOMMENDATION From the analysis of the opinion of respondents regarding the existence and effects of domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. We hereby make the following recommendations to help eliminate or curb the ugly monster called domestic violence against women and children. It is therefore recommended that, the Ministry of Women Affairs, Culture and National Council of Traditional Rulers in conjunction with National Orientation Agency initiate a cultural reform bill which will repair our Customary Laws that regards women as property of men instead of partners in progress. Socializing agents such as churches, schools, parents etc. should make known to the people that marriage is an egalitarian relationship. The concept that man is the head of household and the sole bread winner for the family must be understood in a proper context. Also, the Federal, State and Local government should initiate programmes to alleviate poverty, concrete policies be made and well executed to reach the target of poor population and reduce unemployment rate. It is also recommended that organized private sector should create avenues to enlighten people on ways to be self dependent and employed to reduce their hardship. Government should make adequate provision of housing, medical care, open up education opportunities to raise the standard of living. It is also recommended that women should refuse their husband sex when demanded. Couples should express their sexual abilities without fear. It is also recommended that sex education should be introduced in the school curriculum in order to intimate people on the importance and dynamics of sex. Owing the fact that, domestic violence cannot be totally erased as some people feel most especially the victims, it is a way of correcting the women and children. Women are corrected through this means. It is therefore recommended that, the federal government and even private individuals should be encouraged to set up marital counseling units to help couples with marital problems. The above mentioned measures if adopted, implemented and supervised vigorously, it is believed and hoped that the Nigerian society will put to check this ugly monster and have women contributing their quota to the development of the Nigerian society.   References Abraham, M. (1998). “Ethnicity, Gender and Marital Violence” South Asian Women Organization in the U.S, in Gender and Society, Vol. 9. No 4. P5 Akpa, A and Angaha, D. (1991). Essentials of Research Methodology. Lagos: Aboki Publishers. Atsenuwa, A. U. (ed) (1995). Women’s Rights as Human Right: The Nigerian Experience. Lagos : Legal Research and Resource Development Centre. Awake (2001). “Why Do Men Batter Women”. Awake Magazine. November 8:PP: 5-7 Bart, B and Moran, E.G (1993). Violence against Women. The Bloody Foot Prints. London: Sage Benokaitis, M. (1996). Marriages and Families Changes, Choices and Constraints. New York: Prentice Hall. Carrillo, R. (1991). “Violence against Women”. A Development and Human Rights Issues, Centre for Women Global Leadership. New Brunsuick: Rugers University pp. 5-15. Counts, D.A. et al (ed) (1992). Sanctions and Sanctuary: Cultural Perspectives on the Beating of Wives. Boulder; West-View Press. Oluwanggu, O.T. (2004). “Prevention and Management of Domestic Violence”: Medical Point of View: A paper presented at a seminar organized by Centre for Youth, Family and the Law. New Bodiyo Estate Ibadan Nigeria. Geertz, C. (1995). The Interpretation of Cultures. London: Hutchinson and Company Limited. Handbook For Domestic Violence/Victims (1990). Illinois Coalition Against Domestic Violence: Springfield Illinois U.S.A Healt.http://www.who.int/violenceinquiryprevention/violence/worldreport/wrrwler. Haralambos, M and Holborn, H. (2006). “Sociology Themes and Perspectives” Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Meena, R. (1997). Gender Conflict: A Governance Issue: SAPEM, April. Pp. 26-27. Melliech, A. (2007). In Ephraim Oluwanuga, O.J (2004), “Prevention and Management of Domestic violence.” Medical Point of View. Ibadan. Mojuyinla, O. (2006). in Odunjirrn. O. (1993) Wife Battering in Nigeria. Inter. J. Gynecoli H(ed): 159-164. Oyekanmi, F. (ed) (1997). Men, Women and Violence (CODESRIA) Dakar, Senegal. Vii, pp. 14-29 Griffiths, K. (1985). Understanding Domestic violence, Daily Herald Column, December 14, 1985. Ritcher, A. (1994). Women, Culture and Violence: A Development, Health and Human Rights Issue, Leiden, Women and Autonomy Centre, 25. United Nations (UN) (1990). Strategies for Confronting Domestic Violence. A Resources Manual: New York Working Towards Gender Equality 1993-1995, London: Common Wealth secretariat. Okpeh, O.O .Jnr. (2000). Society and Violence against Women: An Analysis of Neglected Critical Aspect of Women Question in Nigeria: Aboki Press. Pp. 20-27. Payne, W. and Halom, D. (1998). Understanding Your Wealth: Fifth Edition, USA: The Mc Graw Hill Lay. Steirmetze, S.K. (1988). Family Violence, Past, Present and Future, in Handbook of Marriage and the Family. New York, Plenum Press.   QUESTIONNAIRE SECTION A: Socio Demographic Variables Instruction: Please tick the most appropriate in the box where questions are followed, elicit your response as deem appropriate. 1. Sex: Male ( ) Female ( ) 2. Age: 20-30 ( ) 31-40 ( ) 41-50 ( ) 51 and above ( ) 3. Occupation: Famer ( ) Civil Servant ( ) Businessman ( ) Unemployed ( ) 4. Educational Qualification: Primary ( ) Secondary ( ) Tertiary ( ) Non-Formal Education ( ) 5. Religion: Christianity ( ) Islam ( ) Traditional ( ) Others Specify ( ) 6. Marital Status: Single ( ) Married ( ) Divorced ( ) Others Specify ( ) SECTION B: The Causes of Domestic Violence 7. Are you aware of domestic violence? Yes ( ) No ( ) 8. How prevalent is the problem of domestic violence in your area? a. Very High ( ) b. High c. Low ( ) d. Very Low ( ) e. Non-existence ( ) 9. What are the forms of domestic violence that are prevalent in the area? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 10. What are the causes of domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya? ........................................................................................ ........................................................................................ ........................................................................................ 11. In what ways does poverty influence domestic violence against women and children? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 12. Are children brought up in families where domestic violence is prevalent more likely to practice it? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 13. Which of the following form(s) of domestic violence against women can be found in Vandeikya? a. Wife beating and battering ( ) b. Threat and Abuse ( ) c. Sexual Assault ( ) d. Acid Bath ( ) e. All of the above ( )   14. What are the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 15. Which of the following religious affiliation do you belong to ? a. Christianity ( ) b. Islam ( ) c. Traditional Religion ( ) 16. How does Christianity influence domestic violence against women and children in the area? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 17. What is the impact of Islamic religion on domestic violence against women and children? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... .........................................................................................   18. Does Traditional religion contribute towards domestic violence against women and children? Yes ( ) No ( ) 19. What is the impact of Traditional religion in perpetrating domestic violence against women and children? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 20. What are the effects of domestic violence on marital instability ? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 21. How does domestic violence affects the health of women and children? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 22. What are the effects of domestic violence on growth and development of women and children? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 23. In your own opinion, what can be done to curb domestic violence against women and children in our society? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... .........................................................................................