THE EFFECT OF URBANIZATION ON HOUSING IN MAKURDI METROPOLIS

THE EFFECT OF URBANIZATION ON HOUSING IN MAKURDI METROPOLIS BY JACOB YOL 08123463845 MARCH, 2014   CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Urbanization which is one of the indices of industrialization and a sign of economic growth and economic progress. Urbanization forms an aspect in modern and regional studies both to the environmental and social scientist, (Adesoyoju et al 1985). Increasing urbanization is fast occurring throughout the developing world, unfortunately at a pace far in excess of economic advances and the developing world is now undergoing a great urban crisis on a scale unknown to the advanced countries during their main period of urban growth, (Adedeji 1976). All over the developing world, but especially in the Latin America and Africa, there has begun a flight from the land; a tidal wave of the country folks who now have eaten to overwhelm the struggling cities and possibly even bring about their social and economic disintegration. (Abiodun 1985). Nigeria is now with a population of about 170 million (2012) people and is probably the most populous on the African continent. In the last two decades, the search for political, social and economic equality and stability has resulted to the numerous urban centres in Nigeria. The creation of states and the economic boom of the early seventies gave rise to unprecedented urbanization which has continued unabated. However, Nigeria’s urbanization is taking place at a rate faster than our economic development simply put, Nigeria’s technological progress, economic development, industrialization and its attendant consequences or effects. Nonetheless, urbanization in Nigeria as in many developing countries dates back to the medieval times (Ayeni 1978). Ayeni maintained that, extensive urban development is however a feature of the recent past. Nigerian urban centres have within the past 50 years witnessed an unprecedented rate of growth that cannot be divorced from the overall changing socio-economic structure of the country which has led to the creation of number of problems that have been categorized under four headings: unemployment, serviceability, manageability and livability by Mabogunje (1974). The rapid urban growth of the country is as a result of the oil boom as well as the socio-political factor (the creation of states and local government areas). The factions in the country has conferred some villages with urban status by making them administrative centres and providing them with social amenities which led to the migration of rural people into towns. According to Denga (1995) urbanization in Benue State did not predate the colonial era; the towns established during the colonial era remained very small up to 1960, the year of Nigeria’s independence. Due to the lack of industries and other sources of employment, towns in Benue State did not make any appreciable growth until the creation of the state in 1976. The creation of the state and local government areas (LGAs) led to the establishment of the growth of new town. Although majority of the towns in Benue state are administrative centres, we still have towns that serve as commercial and market centres for example, Gboko and Makurdi. Urbanization in recent times has been accomplished by large proportion of slums as in the case of Lagos, Makurdi etc. and inadequate urban services like the supply of water, housing and electricity. Since urbanization is proceeding at a rate faster than the amenities provided in the urban centres and urbanization in some areas are feeling the deleterious effects of unplanned undirected and exploding urban growth more than others. For instance, you cannot compare Government Reservation Area (GRA) and most areas in terms of access to better housing and water supply. Getting urbanized has the characteristics of the developing countries particularly since the 1980s. Urbanization has found expressions in the high annual growth rates attained by “agglomerated settlements” (localities of 20,000 or more inhabitants). The rapid growth rates in our urban centers are caused by the migration of the youths to the Nigerian urban centres. Many people move or migrate to the cities with hope for a better life. In turn, they are the most disillusioned when unemployment or low wages, poor housing or no housing, inadequate services and all too few prospects awaits them in the urban centres. The rapid growth rates in our urban centres are caused by migration of the youths to the Nigerian urban centres which accounts for 63.72% of the urban population and 36.28% for the rural population. Added to that is the population birth rate which is 4.9% in the urban and 6.1% in the rural (annual abstract of statistics 2006). 1.2 Statement of the Problem The continuous migration from the rural to urban centres such as Makurdi has brought the problems of crime, slums (Housing), bad working conditions for the poor etc. These problems have been researched by researchers and scholars and are found to be centred to urban social problems of prostitution, alcoholism, drug addiction and unemployment as in addition to the first mentioned. Makurdi metropolis as my area of study is characterized by slums in most of its areas especially Wurukum and Wadata areas and is faced with major housing problems. As a metropolis characterized by slums, it has many social problems which are housing related problems caused by urbanization of Makurdi as the Benue State capital. It is also characterized by unplanned and unauthorized settlements which are typified by houses of simple and usually low gravity construction often in a state of disrepair. This means that housing units in these settlements are not built according to town planner’s specification, but are rather scattered haphazardly. There is also the issue of pervasive decay of these settlements for lack of maintenance. Housing units in these areas have been identified to be aging due to the effects of neglect and wrong use. Housing problem as one of the effects of urbanization which my work explicitly seeks to proffer solutions to is further aggravated by the decisions of the landlords to convert residential houses into more profitable uses like shops, offices and other high yielding uses. Tenants are rejected and forced to look for alternative accommodation that never existed; this leads to other problems like overcrowding. Overcrowding is as a result of housing shortage and high cost of rent which forces families to live in only one room. The housing problems for the low income earners is worsened by the inability of this group to obtain residential plot for their housing needs due to the complex bureaucratic procedure which are not only complex, but time consuming for a person in urgent need of accommodation. The result has been the rapid growth of haphazard housing areas without reservation of land for good access roads, good sewage disposal facilities and good drainage systems. This has led to the piling of waste products around households which most times tend to block the little or few available drainage systems. This creates by extension dangerous soil-erosion and drainage erosion during rainy storms and periodic floods. Also, due to the swampy nature of most areas, roads or pavements leading to various households been eroded away during heavy downpours and flooding, while some houses are isolated from others by this same swampy nature occasioned by the inability to build linking roads. The inhabitants of Makurdi constitute the urban rich and poor, the skilled and unskilled workers, the literates and illiterates. Some of them work outside their places of residence, receiving poor wages in both white and blue collar jobs, some are self employed engaging in commercial and economic activities like carpentry, hawking and selling of various food items. Some are civil servants. Generally, only a few of the people are economically, socially, politically and culturally advantaged which affects the poor majority negatively in their life chances of good health, education and good food. Related to the above problem is the problem of high cost of building new houses, which is also influenced by status or social stratification in society. This is a hindrance to quality housing in Makurdi due to the fact that it forces most people to build low quality houses which are characterized by poor construction devoid of proper ventilation facilities and inadequate provision of basic facilities like bathroom and toilet. In addition, slum areas are frequently beyond the reach of public water service, inadequate sewage disposal, limited access to roads linking the interior parts of the area, inadequate electricity supply and health facilities (Stark, 2002). This situation is not different from the Wurukum and Wadata areas of Makurdi. The nature of Makurdi metropolis and its inhabitants has facilitated the emergence of serious social related housing problems that are visible in every urban centre especially in developing countries. In that light, congestion or overcrowding on the limited housing facilities constitutes a great problem to the housing units and the inhabitants themselves. This situation leads to squatter settlements where people sleep in rooms that are not properly ventilated, most of the time this creates health problems where epidemic disease like meningitis, attack the inhabitants. Overcrowding also strains the house facilities like toilets and bathrooms and even destroy them. Wurukum and Wadata as slums have been unable to develop because of the problems mentioned above which tend to scare people of higher income to settle and build their houses and sites their businesses there. The neglect by the state government in terms of provision of basic amenities like; electricity, portable pipe borne water and health facilities (hospitals and clinics) is high. These areas have been dominated by the poor classes that are unable to neither develop the housing nor maintain the area and available housing facilities. Hence, these areas are characterized by social deviance, environmental pollution, decaying houses and housing related problems of hygienic settlement which has measure. 1.3 Statement of Research Questions i. What is the cause of urbanization in Benue State capital-Makurdi? ii. What type of migration enhance urbanization of Makurdi? iii. What are the effects of urbanization on housing? iv. How does urbanization cause housing problems like-slums, inadequate roads, shanty houses, over-crowding etc? v. What are the strategies that can be employed to bring solutions to these urbanization problems or effects? 1.4 Research Objectives The research is aimed at achieving the following objectives: 1. To identify the causes of urbanization in Benue State and Makurdi metropolis in particular. 2. To identify the type of migration that enhances urbanization in Makurdi metropolis. 3. To know the effects urbanization has on housing in Makurdi metropolis. 4. To know how urbanization causes housing problems in Makurdi metropolis. 5. To suggest various strategies that can be employed to solve urbanization problems. 1.5 Significance of the Study This research is significant in that, the knowledge that would be gotten will be of use to the various fields in the society relating to urbanization and also about housing problems as it relates to Makurdi metropolis. Again, the study will contribute to government policies on how to solve the problems of urbanization in Makurdi. It will also enhance knowledge on both the negative and positive impact of urbanization on Makurdi metropolis. 1.6 The Scope and limitation of the study This research is limited to the goodness and evils of urbanization on housing in Makurdi metropolis. Although Makurdi is inhabited by both the upper and lower class; the settlement of the rich are very few when compared to the dwellings of the poor. It therefore means that data of both the rich and poor housing units will give the time picture of the situation. The bias of focusing on one group will therefore be avoided. 1.7 Definition of Concepts Urban: there is no universal definition as to what constitutes an urban area. Different nations define the word “urban” according to their level of social and economic development, although the concept of urban usually has spatial and occupational characteristic attached to it. Johnson (1972) remarked that the only functional definition that appears to be generally agreed upon and applied is a simple one based on the residence by a substantial proportion of non-rural workers in a nucleated settlement. Also in the contribution of Wirth (1938), he defines an urban centre as a relatively large, dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogenous individual. 2009 various definitions of urban area by answers.com include a geographical area constituting a city or town; an area with an increased density of human-created structures in comparison to the areas surrounding it. All these have been part of problems of urban definition where no single criterion could be used since some countries have low figure while others have high figures. Onyemelukwe (1977) observed the minimum population size for an urban settlement has remained a point of departure among nationality predetermined criteria; 20,000 in Nigeria, 30,000 in Japan, in Denmark, an urban place is an agglomeration of 250 or more people. In Greece, urban places include agglomerations of 10,000 or more what seems common to all urban areas in the world is that they contain settled population at directly involved in primary production of food and other raw materials (Fogarty, 1995). Urbanization: urbanization is the physical growth of urban areas as a result of rural migration and even sub-urban concentration into cities, particularly the very largest ones. The United Nations projected that half of the world’s population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008. By 2050 it is predicted that 64.1% and 85.9% of the developing and developed world respectively will be urbanized. Geographers and town planners have proposed a spatial definition urbanization is a process by which urban area increase in size and population density (Fog arty, 1995). This definition he says is deliberately vague as the process differs considerably depending on what period of time and what part of the world we consider. Social scientists are rather disturbed by this kind of definition. Political scientists would rather stick to Weber’s old definition of a power phenomenon coming from a city as a centre of dominance (Miner 1967:95). But for most sociologists and Anthropologists, urbanization is a mere social process of both cultural concentration and diffusion. Kinsley Davis (1955) in his non-classing article “urbanization at the world’s population” referred to urbanization as a demographic shift of population with no functional attributes. Sada (1977) defined urbanization as urban component of the national population and is essentially a process of concentrating in an already defined urban centre. Urban Slum: It is seen by Calhoun et al (1994) as unplanned and unauthorized settlements which are typified by houses of simple and usually low quality concentration, often in a state of disrepair with inadequate or non-existent pipe-borne water or sewerage disposal facilities. In addition, the settlements have no access roads and no public lighting and population densities area very high. Relatively, it can also be viewed as an area with high population density and run-down housing that is occupied by the poor. The low income of the residents rather than the age of the building define it. The urban slums are characterized by bad housing and poor sanitary facilities. It is the neglected, occupied by disillusioned urbanites and criminals. Urban Metropolis: This refers to a very large city or urban area which is a significant economic political, and cultural centre for a country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections, commerce and communications. It refers to a situation where urban communities in industrial societies include central cities that are for business, entertainment and residence. It also includes suburbs that lie outside the political boundaries of the city. Rural areas and small towns are often connected to the central city in various ways. Therefore, a central city, its suburbs and the surrounding towns and rural areas that are socially and economically linked together are called metropolis. Housing: The most succinct definition of housing is that offered by the United Nations inter-regional seminar on the social aspect of housing in 1975, thus “housing encompasses all the auxiliary services which are necessary to human well being”. That is to say that housing is more than the basic shelter, or the four walls covered by a roof. It includes all the social and housing facilities like water supply, electricity supply, good toilet, bathrooms, kitchen, good drainage and sewerage disposal.   CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction The world is experiencing a phenomenal growth in the rate of urbanization both in developed and developing countries. The United Nations (1999) estimates showed that by mid-1990, 2.3 billion (43%) of the World’s population lived in urban areas. Its projections further showed that by 2025, more than three fifth of the world’s population would live in urban areas with 77% of this in developing countries. Jeuks and Burgs (2000) show that the ratio of those living in cities in developed countries is 1:2 compared to those living in cities of developing countries. In the next 30years, this ratio will rise to 1:4 which implies that 90% of the growth in urban population will be taking place in developing countries. Nigeria is remarkable for its high percentage of urbanization. For instance, the annual rates of urbanization in Nigeria for the periods 1965-1970, 1970-1975 and 1975-1980 were 4.9%, 5.13% and 6% respectively. These were the periods of the oil boom and expansion in public expenditure. One of the consequences of this unprecedented increase of urban population is an exceptionally high demand for housing which puts a great pressure on land. A United Nations study on land use in urban areas of developing countries underscored this problem when it observed that: The demand for urban land is growing, yet the supply is limited. This situation radically increases land cost. It also distorts patterns of urban growth and development. Thus, this makes the urban in infrastructure becomes more costly and inefficient the institutions and facilities fail to provide adequate services to their populations (United Nations 1975:4). Residential housing plays different roles in the society. It is an immense element in the inheritance and a source of personal wealth. It is a major sector in the national economy, a substantial consumer of investment funds and a large source of employment within the construction and building industries (Onibokun, 1985). That is why, according to the United Nations (1971), there should be a universal recognition of the fact that access to housing is a fundamental human right and that no individual should be deprived of housing or its benefits on the basis of ethnic origin, belief, age, sex, social or economic condition. Although residential housing plays an important role in the welfare and productivity of man, it is I short supply and often of poor quality for the generation of the populace in mainly less developed countries (LCDs) which include Nigeria. In urban centres, housing problems are no longer news as it is considered as one of the characteristics of urbanization. The population of Makurdi, according to the 1963 population census was 16,716. In 1973 the figure rose to 53, 973 and in 2006; it rose to 300,377 people [National Population Census (NPC), 2006]. The town’s population increase has resulted in a urge demand for housing and other services that go along with it. The federal government federal adopted the national sites and services programmes in 1986 as a method for housing delivery through increased supply of serviced plots at affordable cost. This was to create easy access to land, which had for long hindered home ownership. The goals of the programme were to provide services land for housing development and commercial activities in a well planned environment, remove all barriers to the supply of housing and provide incentives to all parties involved (government, private sector and individuals) in the housing delivery system. However, since the commencement of the programme in 1986, only about 20, 000 plots have been allocated in about 20 states of the Federation (Ajanlekoko 2001.) this aspect of work tries to review some of the distinct studies and contributions by different scholars on the dynamism of urbanization. THE CONCEPT Rodney Stark (1992:83) recently viewed urbanization “as the migration of people from the rural areas to the city”. He further reviewed that urbanization and industrialization are inseparable hence it has allowed citizens to live in cities and towns where there is the convention of highly skilled workers based on specialization work at specific locations. Davis K. (1955:57) defined urbanization as a “demographic shift of population with no functional attribute”. This was also followed up by different scholars who defined it to suit their research or academic purpose. ….(1942:8) defined urbanization as “the process whereby increasing proportions of a nations population is drawn into areas, which are being relatively densely settled and relatively large, and can be thought of as cities”. Adegboye (1967:30) defined urbanization as a “period of intense socio-economical or political change”. This can be explained in reference to Europe’s urbanization and growth of cities in the 19th century. Onyemelukwe (1977:102) looked at urbanization as “a process of concentrating in large numbers or location in an already defined urban area”. A host of scholars and writers explain the urbanization process in relation to migration and population in the western world and tend to forget about the developing world situation. But Bakar (1974) argued that the concept of which has been observed in the western experience could be entirely different from that of the developing world thus misleading its fundamental realities. The features of urbanization process as observed in the 19th century Europe has changed. In most developing countries, it is not only due to rural urban migration as against the west but also with high natural population increase. Take Nigeria as an example where Jos was seen to have grown at a rate of 8.6% out of which 4.6% was due to migration, while 40% was attributed to natural increase. Not only that, the West accompanied urbanization with industrialization so that rural migrants were observed in the industry. Maboguaje (1968) is of the argument that western concepts of urbanization by Rostow and Berry to the developing world situation are totally not suitable. This leaves the question of the universality of concepts which could be applied to both western and developing countries. 2.2 Urbanization in Nigeria The phenomenon of urbanization is a consequence of population increase and migration from rural to urban areas and growth-centres. The urban growth rate in Nigeria today is put at 5.8% per annum (DRAFF NUDP, 2004). Rural economy is principally agranian. But, under conditions of increasing population and diminishing rural resources, some contingent of rural population migrates to urban areas for helpful job security, higher education, higher income, better health and longer life. The result usually is disappointed and disillusioned as the poor in some cities have a better life than those in rural areas. Old settlements are congested and crowded, new formations emerge without preliminary design and planning, and without infrastructure. Nigeria’s pattern of urban development is unique in Africa, south of the Sahara. Unlike in many countries in Africa; urbanization in Nigeria predates the European colonization of the country. In a search as urbanization has always been a way of life in many parts of the country, colonial urban development represents one of the numerous phases of urbanization. Furthermore, the process of urbanization aggravated by the ever changing socio-political and economic scene as well as rapid rates of population growth and migration are not only very active but could also be seen and analysed. Consequently, Nigeria provided a good situation for studying the dynamics of urbanization process as well as for examining the socio-economic and spatial responses to the changing mechanism of urbanization. Far back as 1921 when Nigeria’s population was over estimated at 18.631 million, at least 1.345 million Nigerians lived in 29 cities whose population exceeds 20.00. By 1952 when the first active counting took place in the country, there were 3.237 million people living in 56 cities and representing some 10.6% of the total population of 30.403 million. Even at this time, there were in the country, 329 urban centres whose population exceeded 5,000. By 1963, there were more than 180 cities containing 19.1% of the nation’s population of 55.670 million (Mabonguje 1974). The last census being in 2006 with the population of the country standing at 140, 003, 542. An equally important characteristic of urban development is its distribution. In this case, Nigeria contrasts again very strongly with many African nations where acute primate urban development is the role rather than the exception. In 1952 for instance there was a near equitable distribution of the 329 urban centres as manifested by the occurrence of 135 or 41.03% of these in the south Western section of the country, 115 or 34.96% in the northern parts and 79 or 24.01% in the eastern areas. Supplementing this spatial distribution was an almost Chris Teller type hierarchical size class distribution (Mabogunje 1968). These apparent regularities are indeed deceptive as it generally agreed that the existing urban centre represent an amalgam of many urban centres system that evolved through different time periods and in varying socio-economic milieu. Consequently, the factors governing Nigerian urbanization process needs to be appreciated to provide a proper perspective of the roles and problems of these cities. The problem of uncontrolled urbanization in Nigeria is already with us in all our cities. The draft National urban Development policy (NUDP, 2004) notes that, Nigerian town are growing without adequate planning and her urban system had evolved like those of other developing countries (Adepoju 1983). Urbanization like in other countries has passed through some identifiable stages or phases: the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial phases (Adepoju 1983). 2.2.1 Pre-Colonial Phase Urbanization in Nigeria is traceable to the medieval times rapid urban development is however a thing of the recent past including the present century. By the middle of the 19th century for instance, there were two areas of major and three other areas of minor urban development. The two major areas were in south-western and northern par to the country where urban development among the Yoruba and the Hausa Fulani’s gave rise to the growth of systems of urban centre. The minor areas were the coastal city-states of the middle Delta, the Nupe, urban system in the middle Niger and the Kanuri-Borno system in the North-East. In each of these areas, urban development was fostered by a well-developed political organization that ensured the effective functioning of cities as centre of trade, culture and administration. Urban development in the northern parts of the country has its origins in the growth and decay of the Sudanese implies, which existed in Ghana about 800 AD, in Mah about 1500AD, and later on in Soughan in the 17th century (Mabogunje 1968, 44-72). Using the great trans-saharan paths to trade with north Africa, these empires developed a system of cities whose function included trading as well as administration. Urban development in the forest belt of southwestern Nigeria came later in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Its full development was realized by about the middle belt of the nineteenth century (at the same south). When the Yoruba empire spread across parts of the present Ondo, Ogun and Oyo states into parts of Kwara State to the north, and across the Western boundary of Nigeria into present republic of Benin, the founding of Yoruba town consisted of a depopulation of surrounding villages and forced movement of their population into the new town (Mabogunje 1968). The three other areas of urban development that predate the colonial period were less extensive than the two areas above. For instance, most of the Kanem-Borno empire that developed in the northern eastern part of the country lay outside the present-day Nigeria. In spite of repeated efforts by the Fulani Hausa’s empire to overwhelm this empire, it neur succeeded and the cities of Maiduguri and Potiskum survived into present-day Nigeria. On the other hand, there was no strong urbanization in the south-eastern part of the country although there were a number of coastal city-states which grew in response to the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Some of these cities are Calabar, Bonny, Brass and Opobo. Elsewhere the majority of the people lived in villages and hamlets until the colonial period. 2.2.2 Colonial Time Colonial urban development has its origin in the pac Britanica. It meant not only peace and free movement, but also agricultural development and intensification of trading activities with Britain. Although Nigeria emerged as a national entity in 1914 when Lord Lugard amalgamated the Northern and Southern protectorates of Nigeria. The British occupation of the country dates back to 1961 when Lagos was ceded to Britain. Subsequently Britain intensified its role at first through the activities of missionaries and the royal Niger company but adversely, through wars and conquest. However, colonial urban development was as a result of two major factors; the introduction of a magnetized economy and development of a modern transportation network. The development of a magnetized economy was based on the production of a number of agricultural products (later on to be known as cash crops) and the exploitation of mineral resources where they existed. By this time cocoa and Brazilian rubber has been introduced into the south-western parts of the country and hence became the principal cash crops. Intensification of the production was manifested in the intensification of the production and exportation of palm oil and palm produce, a trade had been existence in the Delta of the Niger since the days of King Jaja of Opobo. Cotton, groundnuts, etc. were in production and the British discovered a few minerals in Nigeria but the few were all important items. In the Udi hills of eastern Nigeria, coal of a fairly good quality was discovered while tin and Columbia were found in the Jos Plateau. The organization of feeder roads to railways became the slated policy of the colonial administration by 1927. Consequently road development was show and poor and by 1953, there were only 28,000 miles of roads only which was described as federal roads and 20% were regional roads and while most federal roads at this time might have been motorable, not all the regional roads were. This lack of concern for roads development was also manifested in the fact that about the same time, there were fewer than 22,000 vehicles in the country. The description of the growth of export crops and mineral production as well as transportation development emphasizes on major point; the desire of Britain to exploit the natural resources of the country at minimum cost. Consequently, the British were not concerned with preservation of the spatial system that achieved their objectives. This imposition of a colonial spatial order represents perhaps the greatest equilibrium mechanism that are shaping the growth of cities as well as the spatial patterns of urban development in the country. Since the railways were constructed to link centre of production, they inevitably led to the founding of new towns where none existed before and also reinvented old ones that fell on the new transport network while almost paralyzing those that were not so fortunate. The impact of colonial urban development is not restricted to demographic characteristics alone; it indeed has grave spatial and economic consequences. Basically, it succeeded in imposing a final structure on the organization of the single city. Spatially, this dual structure usually manifested itself in the existence of two centres. The first is the traditional market centre, usually in front of the emir’s or oba’s palace and area differentiation of activities the central business district of western cities and is a direct consequences of equal importance in this spatial arrange of the city internal structure is also the existence of two sections, taxation and development strategies differ. In many cities all over the country, the new sections are often occupied by migrants who are generally more educate than the indigenous inhabitants, the new cities are organized differently and are all characterized by the government reservation area which are low density, well planned residential quarters. In the Northern it was usual to find in addition to the government reservation area, two other cities, Tudun Wada, an area set apart for indigenous of the locals where the town is founded, and the Sabon Gari (new town) were migrants from other parts of the country reside. In these areas where a city existed before the colonial period as in Zaria or Kano, there is always the old city or the Benin where the Emir has jurisdiction over the indigenous inhabitant while there are considerable variations in the level of development of these patterns within individual cities, it is certain that, they were the direct consequences of British policy of indirect rule that required minimum intervention in the powers of the traditional ruling class of cultural life of the different ethnic groups in the country. Economically, the British approach to the exploitation of resource of the country was such that some economic Islands and enclaves were created many of the cities especially the administrative headquarter of Lagos, Ibadan, Kaduna, Enugu and Jos became some of these economic islands. The result was a large scale migration of people from all over the country with consequent shortage by building shanty towns or enduring overcrowding, the response to the urban unemployment problem was more dramatic and realistic. It led to the emergence of the urban informal sector, which is characterized by the existence of single person or family business, low capital outlay, little organizational framework and an almost total absence of mechanization in the production process. This sector where such services as vehicle repairing, tailoring furniture making and banking in addition to indigenous (Nigerians) retailing activities. Associated with the emergence of the urban informal sector was the development of elaborate apprentice system of training for employees (Lalaway 1964). Nowadays, more than half of the labour forces in the large urban centres are employed in the informal sector. 2.2.3 Post Colonial Era The third phase of urbanization in Nigeria is the post-colonial period. The introduction of regional governments led to five town including Lagos, based in the regional capitals of Kaduna, northern region, Ibadan in the west, Enugu in the east and Benin in the Mid-West. There was concentration of socio-economic development around these four regional nodes. These nodes from the Kaduna-Jos-Kano triangle in the North, port-Harcourt, Aba-Enugu axis in the East; Lagos-Ibadan complex in the west and Benin-city in the mid-west (Mabougunje 1970). The creation of 12 state structures in 1967 changed the Nigerian urban system as the 12 state capitals acted as development centres. Later creation witnessed 19 states structure and later 36 states. These new states capitals are growing at a very fast rate. However, Payme (1977) argues that: “what is not disputed is that such cities are fundamentally different, quantitatively and qualitatively from the typically industrialized capitalist city of the west with which they are often frequently compared”. There is little doubt that technological innovations based initially on labour intensive methods provided the capability of meeting the demands from greatly increased domestic and internal markets in a way that dispersed rural based sources of production would have found it extremely difficult to achieve (Mabogunje 1968). 2.3 The Causes of Urbanization in Makurdi Benue State capital - Makurdi is not left out of the wave of rapid urbanization going on in Nigeria. When Makurdi town became a state capital in 1976, there was a mass movement of rural dweller into the town. The only job opportunities were in the construction industry, which could not absorb them all. Mabogunje (1968) argued that the cities of the developing world are a marginal surplus as a result of the limited capital intensive industry and also as a result of competition from the developed countries who produce higher quality goods and the fact that the developing world cities do not have ready markets in colonies like their western counterparts do also, the fact that even their home market is geared towards a small middle class sector. In the case of a town like Makurdi, whose rapid growth had started as a result of its administrative roles, industries were slow to establish in the town. However, Hwakar 9181) argued that the limitation established by this restricted sources of surplus production is to an extent cushioned by thru ban population absorbed. This service sector is however different from those found in the industrial cities in that it is characterized by relatively low levels of differentiation and technical expertise and consist primarily of petty-traders, labourers and unskilled artisans (Directorate of information, 2000). In addition to factors like construction of the railway line and bridge across the River Benue, which contributed to the development of Makurdi local government, the greatest impetus came in 1976 when it was made the capital of the newly created Benue State. Being the administrative headquarters, it attracted civil servants from over the country thus its population increased and several commercial and business opportunities were brought up. Makurdi now has several government establishments i.e government and residential quarters, a branch of Central Bank of Nigeria, modern Market, sports complex, police headquarters, Nigerian Prisons Service, Aper Aku township stadium, Nigeria Air Force Base Makurdi, the Federal Medical Centre, two universities and many private and public establishment including Ostrich bakery, schools beer and soft drink complexes, grains processing and brick industries. Makurdi can be reached by air, rail, road and water. The major Northern route is the Makurdi-Lafia-Jose road. The southern routes are Makurdi Otukpo on rail and Makurdi-Yandev Adikpo – Calabar roads. Traffic from the West comes through Makurdi (3) Ankpa (3) Okene (1) roads and from the east through Makurdi, Yandev, Katsina-Ala, Wukari roads. The Makurdi rail bridge provides the only rail link between the northern and eastern parts of Nigeria. Nigeria Airways and other private airlines provides air links between Makurdi and the rest of the country UNGASS 2005 report). 2.4.1 Migration type that enhance Urbanization of Makurdi Migration is one of the three major components of population change for any given defines territory. It is most difficult to characterize measure and define. Among the components of population change, Migration can lead to both growth and decline in population which is the propellant for urbanization or growth of cities. Migration and population redistribution are integrate parts of modernization (Matras, 1973), and a major symptom of basic social change. Survey region and every nation at that has undergone extensive industrialization has simultaneously undergone a redistribution of its population (Bogue 1972). There is no one universally, accepted definition of migration. Various authors defined it to suit their operative purposes the United Nations multi-lingual dictionary defined it as “a form of spatial mobility between one geographical change of residence” and “is applicable only in the case of relatively, settled population” (UN 1973:173). Eisenstadt 91953:1) defined migrations “as the physical transition of an individual or a group from one society to another. This transition usually involves abandoning ones social setting and entering another different one”. While Mangalam (1968:8) conceives it as “a relatively permanent moving away of a collectivity called migrants, from one geographical location to another preceded by decision-making on the part of the migrants on the basis of a hierarchical ordered set of values or valued ends and resulting in changes in the interactional system of the migrants”. Migration to Bogue (1972) “is reserved for those changes of residence that involved complete change and readjustment of the community affiliations of the individual-employment, friendship, neighbours (with) - social and economic ties”. UN (1973:173) see migration “as a change in the usual place of residence from one administrative unit to another”. The above cannot be exhaustive definitions of migration but the most pertinent. The United Nations defined internal migration as “residential mobility from one unit to another within the same country” (UN 1973:173). This involves a change of residence across boundaries of administrative areas. Internal migration has the types of rural – rural migration, rural – urban migration, urban – urban migration and urban - rural migration. The Nigerian institute of social economic research (1997) simply defined internal migration “as any change of residence that has taken place within national boundaries (NISER, 1997XI). Internal migration on its part is the movement of the people across national frontiers Thomas (1982:5510) defined it “as the movements (involving change of permanent residence) from one country to another which take place through the volition of individuals or family concerned”. It can also be defined as “any change of residence that has taken place across a national borer” (NISER, 1997 XI). International migration comprises immigration (a gain in population) and emigration (a loss in population). Owing from the above definitions by world scholars and the UN, the migration type that has enhanced the urbanization of Makurdi can be adjudged to be the internal and international migrations. The internal being worthy that rural – urban migration where youths move to cities for better jobs and standard of living. The international being immigrate from the Diaspora who come in a to settle for business and technology transfer e.g the Ostrich bakery in Makurdi by the whites has also enhanced urbanization of Makurdi. 2.3.2 The Effects (consequences) of Urbanization The process of urbanization aided the industrialized countries but added to the problems of the third world (now developing) countries. In the advanced countries, the growth of cities contributed to the economic advancement of the society because the surplus labour from country side were put to lucrative use in producing goods and services in urban areas. In the developing countries, the movement to the cities is very rampant and those coming to the cities are ill prepared for the skilled and technical jobs this pilling up people on crowed land and resources. Most of these new arrivals bring along to the cities their rural high fertility pattern leading to astronomical growth of cities in the midst of their inability to absorb the migrants. The good sides of urbanization include the fact that it leads to economic of scale, since there is concentration of people and industries and entrepreneurship. Location of facilities is easily attracted to where there is greater potential for their utilization such as schools, banks, health facilities etc. planning and administration is easily co-ordinate from a sport either town planning or regional planning. These benefits are mostly accurate to nations that have strong economic base, and a strong political will power to use the resources both capital and human to the advantage of mass of people. On the other hand, the worrisome aspect of urbanization is that while the advance countries are urbanizing as a gradual rate in consonance with their population dynamics, the urbanization in developing countries is growing at an incredible countries about 25 – 30years to double at the rate they are growing now. It will only require about 14 – 16 years for cities in developing countries to double. The population growth for advanced countries is between 1.5 – 2 percent. The present astronomical growth rate of cities in developing countries is our most pressing problems. Akinlawon Mabogunje conceptualized urban problems under four headings: unemployment, serviceability, manageability and livability. The problem of urban employment can be appreciated from a recent survey which showed that between 5 and 20% of the urban labour force in Nigeria are unemployed or unemployable as a result of their lack of education or skills (Falae 1971). These figures contrast strongly with the national rate 1.7%. The cause of this unmanageable urban unemployment is a consequence of many factors, notably the educational system which not only discourages agriculture as a noble profession but also train professional employees for non-existent white collar jobs in the cities. In addition, there is the fact that urbanization in Nigeria as in most developing countries is not a direct consequence of industrialization. The migrants in search of urban employment is in most cases a frustrated man and is usually forced into some apprenticeship training for employment in the large and growing informal sector. Again, in terms of employment, the cities are just unable to cope with large influx of expectant migrants that through into cities daily from depressed rural areas and smaller urban centres. The special problem of cities is to find employment for new migrants to the cities, the farmers pushed off the land because of high rural density and the resulting poverty. These people who are pushed into the cities are for the most part, unprepared for life and work in the city. They do not posses mechanical skills. They are illiterates. Thye are stepped in tradition. The cities too are unprepared for them (Eitzer, 1980:300). According to Umoh (2001: 134 – 135) unemployment, underdevelopment is therefore rife. By 1990 the unemployment rate in our urban centres stood at 5.73% as against 2.85% in the rural area (FOS 1997:10) while there are also hordes of unemployed graduates, the situation is more acute among those with lesser qualification. To live, the unemployed therefore has to depend on friends, relatives that are working. Some beg for alms while others are driven into crime and prostitution. Those that can afford, hawk various wares on the streets and traffic hold ups. Secondly is the issue of serviceability, which has to do with the ability of cities to meet the hopes and aspiration of those who had to depend on them for survival. The cities need to solve the problems of providing services (e.g sanitation, health care delivery, safe water, hosing, welfare, police and fire protection, transportation, job etc) but they are handicapped by the lack of financial resources and the fact that the cities are growing so fast that programmes even successful ones, are doomed. While the cities have failed to meet expectations of city dwellers, the rural areas that are dependent on them are experiencing frustration. In most developing countries, due to colonial experience and the recruitment globalization process, the urban centres are more dependent on the west and product from such advanced countries that rural area are stagnating or retrogressing in economic productivity. Most raw materials from the rural areas are not finding markets due to poverty, and sometimes importation of such commodities is cheap prices from foreign countries. The urban centre’s are not stimulating or sewing as a catalyst of growth for rural areas as most productive are geared towards satisfying the desire of other nations. Management of urban centre’s become problematic due to the fact that there is uncontrolled in flow of people to these centres. Besides, there is no accurate knowledge of how many people are to be catered for at a particular time. In most of the urban centres, great majority of the facilities that would cater to the interest of the population were established over a decade without provision for modernization even as population keep swelling. Sanitation, garbage/refuse disposal facility are a choice, water supply is inadequate electricity supply is epileptic, education facility are dilapidating, hospital facility are far cry from what the city dwellers need. Urban management board where they existed are stressed to breaking point. Roads are congested due to inadequate market and people covert available spaces to market. Hawkers everywhere are littering the environment. Transport management is chaotic. Poor waste disposal, water supply, education facilities, medical provision e.t.c underline the fact that many urban centers are for managing cities. However, the developing countries are gradually overcoming some of the management problem. The issue of live ability has become very pressing of late, especially with the increasing environmental deterioration in the large, metropolitan centre’s, it involves not only living conditions but also ease of circulation in the city. Both in the rapidly growing industrial centre’s and the stagnating traditional centre’s, living condition have been hoarsening over the years, in the former manifested in the growth of squatter settlements, overcrowded habitation, breakdown of waste disposal arrangements, inadequate water and power is the case, massive migration has meant excess capacity in housing, resulting in a high rate of disrepair and dilapidation. It is only in the larger metropolitan centre’s that circulation is becoming a serious problem (Mabogunje 1978). Most of these people exchanged the squalor or rural poverty for the squalor of urban poverty. Where you have high urban employment rate and unhealthy living condition, such environment is a breading rate ground of vices, crimes, dug peddling and abuse, prostitution and such like. 2.5 The Concept of Housing The definition of housing quality embraces many factors which include the physical condition of the building and other facilities and services that make living in a particular area conducive. The duality of housing within any neighborhood should be such that satisfies minimum health standards and good living standard, but should also be affordable to all categories of households (Okewole and Aribigbola, 2006). Housing is however an issue that touches on the life individual as well as that of the nation, a great importance is therefore ascribed to the role it plays in engendering human comfort by both nature and so city. This is why Eldredge (1967) concludes that housing represents a bundle of goods and services which facilitate and enhance good living, and a key to neighborhood quality and presentation. Likewise, Agbola (1998)notes that housing is a combination of characteristics which provide a unique home within any neighborhood, is an array of economics, social and psychological phenomena. In other words, could be seen as a multidimensional package of goods and services extending beyond shutter itself. Housing affects both physical and mental health, the forms and growth patterns of cities (United Nations1971), the location of a be sinless and industries is the demographic character of neighborhood. A house must be a home resting place in which to try to fulfill the fundamental purpose of human society, namely a successive rewarding happy or at least a livable life. Its study is related to almost every fact of civilization, therefore its improvement represents a tangle and visible expression of rise in general level of living. Stewart (1991) defines a house as an apartment group of rooms or a single room occupied or intended for occupancy as a separate living quarters. He hurter observed that houses stand at the center of people’s lives providing shelter for man, a shield against elements of nature and a storage place, housing either in units or multiples forms is a significant component of the physical forms and structure of a community. Mabogeuje (1978) used the concept of shelter to embrace terms live housing and dueling. By shelter he refers to the total environment within which individual families have to live. It includes both the dueling unit and its environment especially the facilities and services provided on community basis. The usability of a house is influenced among other things by the facilities available to a house and the environment in which the house is located. A filthy environment constitutes danger to health. The absence of any regular system of refuse disposed potentially renders an environment filthy similarity absence creates problems in a house (Adedeji 1976). The United State (in Andrews Reed 1919) considers housing quality to be sub-standard if shelters does not provide adequate protection and comfort because of such allegedly critically detects as holes in areas of the foundation, walls or roofs, exterior damage from the storm, fire etc. 2.6 The Role of Urbanization on Housing The rapid urban growth poses many economic, social and physical problems. This process generates some undesirable effect, which may be determined to the national, regional and urban centers, socio-economic, political and cultural well being, whilst at the some producing conducive atmosphere for the overall development. The consequences of urbanization can be viewed from the negative and positive approach (Maboguije, 1985). As a result of urbanization and lack of economic opportunities in rural areas, many people move to the cities. They move to the cities that are already dealing with issues of overcooling, infrastructure and high cost of living. This forces them to seek shelter in slums. United nation, habitat in 2006 found that 90% of slum residents are in the developing countries with struggling economies. Lu Addison, cities were not meant to handle millions of people streaming in when designed. This impact the availability and affordability of housing, forcing millions to live in sub stand and dueling. One of the most noticeable and immediate results of urbanization in developing countries is the rapid deterioration of the human environment caused by increasing gap between economic growth on one hand, population growth and concentration on the other. Abiodun (1985) pointed that the spontaneous urbanization leads to a situation where squatters and settlement most room in cities of all sizes in developing countries (like Nigeria) providing inadequate shelter and frequently not even the basic facilities for the urban poor. The rapid increase in the population of the urban centers has resulted in an increase in the cost of living, because of higher demand on urban commodities that are getting shorter in supply by the day. There is a death and high cost of urban land, and high cost of housing, which is often in supply and out of the economic reach of the majority of the urban households who incidentally fall into the low-income category. The greater percentage of the poor in Makurdi lives in the slum areas of Wadata and Wurukum. The inhabitants of Makurdi constitute the urban rich and poor the skilled and unskilled workers, the literates and illiterates. Some of them work outside their places of residence, receiving poor waged in both white and blue collar jobs, some are self employed engaging in commercial and economic activities like carpentry, hawking and selling of various food items. Some are civil servants. Generally, only a few of the people are economically, socially, politically and culturally advantaged which affects the poor majority negatively in their life chances of good health, education and good food. Already many of the problems associated with the fast growing cities of developing countries are becoming recognizable in Makurdi. The sudden burst in Makurdi population rendered the existing hosting stock quantitatively and qualitatively inadequate due to excessive demand on various forms of accommodation (Hwakar, 1981). The nature of Makurdi metropolis and its inhabitants had facilitated the emergence of serious social related housing problems that are visible in every urban centre especially in developing countries and its cities like Makurdi. In that light, congestion or overcrowding on the limited housing facilities constitutes a great problem into the housing units and the inhabitants themselves. This situation leads to squatter settlements where people sleep in rooms that are not properly ventilated, most of the time this creates health problems where epidemic disease like meningitis attack the inhabitants. Overcrowding is a result of the housing shortage and high cost of rents, which forces many families to live in only one room. Housing problems in Makurdi cut across class but the worst affected are the low-income earners who pay about 40% their wages on rents. The costs of housing provided by the government are occupied by the middle class (Abiodun 1983). Substandard housing is the type of housing that does not meet the standards for living by people. These standards are usually set by governments and deal with how safe the dwelling is for people to live. For example, Makurdi city does not have adequate heating, plumbing, electricity or proper sanitation. Often substandard housing is deteriorated housing that has not been repaired or temporary housing that does not meet building codes. Unfortunately, Makurdi has a greater number of her population living in slums or substandard housing which is on the increase. Crime rates are also high especially in Wadata and Wurukum, including Akpehe and some aspects of North bank, since there is very little or no light at night and police protection. Substandard housing is a serious issue. Ti has led to these squatter and slum areas become a den where diseases spread quickly because of lack of sanitation and garbage disposal systems. Lack of clean water for washing and drinking in Wadata, Akpehe, Wurkum had rendered its inhabitants prone to diseases. According to Abiodun (1985), the housing problem for the low income earners is worsened by the inability of this group to obtain residential plots for their housing needs due to bureaucratic procedure which are not only complex but also time consuming for a person in urgent need of accommodation. For example, it takes anything from three years for a plot of land to be serviced for private development. Housing in Wadata, Wurukum and Makurdi in general is not different from what is obtained in other urban areas as discussed above. As it stands, studies have not been found dealing with housing problems I Makurdi local government. However, personal observation shows that housing in the area lack most of the facilities that enhances quality in a house. 2.7 Theoretical Framework There are a number of applicable theories that can be used a cited in the explanation of urbanization. For the purpose of this work, we shall be using three contending perspectives to the study of urbanization – the western liberal or modernization perspective, the Marxist perspective and finally at ecological perspective of Bugess and Park. A narrow down shall be taken and hinged on one of the discussed theories. This is because, each of these perspective attempts to provide an explanation for urban growth and the social effects of urbanism.   The Western Liberal or Modernization Theory or Perspective The western liberal or modernization theory or perspective has been the dominant perspective in much of the previous works on urbanization. Within this framework, urban growth is seen as an inevitable consequence of development. “Industrial growth created jobs which draw rural migrants into cities, generates a complex division of labour, and provides the technology necessary for large cities to function” (Kentor, 1981:202, Hoselitz, 1960). The modernization theorists posit a rural push, urban-pull explanation of urban growth. The most widely accepted of the modernization theories is perhaps the economic growth model of rural-urban wage differentials and labour adjustment. According to this model, increased industrialization creates a wage differential through an increased labour demand, thus, drawing low-paid rural areas. The growth of the urban labour force results to decline in this wage differential until an equilibrium is reached and rural migration than the pull of higher urban wage expectations. Apart from providing explanations for urban growth, the modernization theorists also describe the effects of modern urban society on social organization and on individuals’ lives. According to Baldassare (1983:4) Early theorists assumed that industrialization resulted in radical social changes. As agricultural production became partially replaced by manufacturing, society’s economic activities became more organizationally complex and socially interdependent. The drift away for rural communal existence toward urban specialized labour also placed new pressure on the individual. Rather than increasing “happiness” modernization stripped people of a meaningful social and economic existence and forced them into purely functional tasks and transient relationships. Feelings of alienation, normlessness, social isolation, worthlessness, and opportunities for deviance more to emerge. The above views are associated mainly with the Chicago school who considered their work as an “ecological analysis” since they were concerned about how humans organized their cities, adapted to urban surroundings, and ultimately, gained collective sustenance from the city environment (BULDASSARE, 1983:4). In his book, “urbanism as a way of life” Wirth (1938), a well-known scholar of the Chicago school developed further the main views of the school. He selected three factors that distinguish cities from country sides. Population size, population density, and heterogeneity, Wirth posited that the concentration of large and heterogeneous populations eventually leads to the weakening of interpersonal ties, primary social structures and normative consensus. This is accounted for by “the immediate psychological impact of the urban scene (Simmel 1905, Milgram 1970) and the complex structural differentiation generated by dynamic density” (Fischer, 1983:86). The resultant effects of these processes are individual alienation, societal anomie, and the prevalence of “disorganized” “non-traditional” and “deviant” behaviour. Ecological analysis has been subjected to criticisms by some scholars. For instance, Gans (1962a),; Lewis (1952), Young and Wilmott (1957) and others contend that, the variables of number, density and heterogeneity are not crcial determinants of social life or personality. According to them, a wealth of personal ties and thriving primary groups exist even in the innermost recesses of the large city. These scholars further assert that few differences exist between urban and rural populations, and those that exist are attributable to age, ethnicity, and social classes and not to any autonomous effect of ecological factors (Gans, 1962b:1967). This position might be termed non-ecological. A view point which has also been seriously criticized by scholars. For example, Fischer (1983:87) contends that: Urban residents do differ significantly from residents of non-urban places, and they differ to a degree insufficiently accounted for by the individual traits each group brings to its locale. They are more likely than rural residents to behave in ways that diverge from the central and traditional norms of their common society. A third position has emerged which tries to identify and account for the social effects of urbanism. This is called the sub-cultural theory of urbanism. According to this theory, urbanism has some social effects including those that wirth described as deviance and disorganization. However, the sub-culturalists contend that, the “higher rates of deviance and disorganization” in cities are not accounted for by such factors as alienation, anonymity and impersonality, but instead, by the congregation of numbers of persons, “critical masses” sufficient to maintain viable unconventional subcultures. It is the behavioural expressions of those sub-cultures that come to be called “deviant” (Fischer, 1982:85). In summary, the modernization or western liberal perspective is based on particular ideological assumptions, (capitalist assumption) and these assumptions lie at the roots of many planning document that are used to address the problems of the cities especially in developing countries. Consequently, they have failed to account accurately for the causes and problems of urbanization especially in developing countries. According to Slater (1999:27): The examination of urban problems is abstracted from the socio-economic reality of the given social formation where in these problems can only assume their essential meaning and consent and the consequent discussion only attain an implicit theoretical status through the transmission of ideological nations that conceal the real nature and specificity of peripheral capitalism. In the same vein, the concentric zone hypothesis developed by Ernest Burgess and Robert Park during the 1920s they took an approach that has been called urban ecology much as biological science of ecology concerns how organisms develop in the environment, these sociologists view the city as a complex responses to competing extend forces. The urban ecology shares two basic premises about the internal organization of the city. First was assumed that the city consists of a number of sections, in each of which only a single activity such as heavy manufacturing or upper class residence would be concentrated. Secondly as urban space became limited and competition became intense, a section ultimately would be part to use with greatest economic value, though the longest established sector would according to the concentric zone radiating outward in succession from a central business district. Each successive some is part of a specific type of land use. Major commercial activities are concentrated in the central zone, which contains retail stores, business officers and government buildings. The second or transitional zone usually consists of a deteriorating residential neighbourhood being encroached on by business and industry, slums containing high crime rates, vice and residential instability are common in the zone. The ethnical zone is residential. It consists primarily of lower class homes whose residents included those who have escaped the slums as well as the elderly. Additional zones radiate limits yet depend on the city for employment. In the analysis however, the park and Burgess concentric zone theory best describes Makurdi. Various ecologically, based social groups within the city were seen in terms of competition conflict assimilation and accommodation with each other.   CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter contains the research method to be used on the study. The chapter discusses the study area, the study population, sampling procedure, methods of data collection, technique of data analysis and field problem(s). 3.2 Research Setting The research will be conducted in Makurdi metropolis – Makurdi Local government area of Benue State. Makurdi Local Government Area is the capital of Benue state and was created on February 13, 1976. Makurdi is about 300 kilometers south of the Federal Capital Territory Abuja. The city lies on either side of the Makurdi Bridge at Latitude 7.440 North and Longitude 8.380 East. It is lowly lying and generally found 250 meters above sea level. Makurdi has a land mass of 34,059Sq meters with eleven (11) council wards, it has a total population of 29, 739 people according to the 2006 population census figures approximately. The local government is located in middle belt area of Nigeria situated at the bank of Benue valley and is bordered on the west and North by Kaina and Doma local government areas, and on the south by both Gwer and Gwer Local Government Area of Benue State (Directorate of Information, 2000). 3.3 Study Population Population is a set of individual objects or measurement which have some common observable characteristics (Denga and Ah 1983). That is to say, members of the same population have characters which are common and for the purpose of this research work, the population under study comprise of the entire population of Makurdi metropolis; High level, Wurukum, Wadata, North Bank and Gyado Villa. This does not include those on short visits to these areas. The population will comprise of people (both male and female) from varying works of life; teachers, Civil servants, farmers, traders etc who reside in Makurdi metropolis and who are aged 18 years and above. 3.4 Sampling Procedure In social research, it is impossible to study the whole population due to several factors which include lack of time and materials financial set backs etc. A small Section of the population is therefore studied with the view to represent the entire population and this is known as “sampling”. The social science researcher chose from either the simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, Area sampling or cluster sampling. The researcher randomly administered questionnaires to High-Level, Wadata, North Bank and Gyado Villa, to each of these areas with the initiation to explore information and investigate “the effects of urbanization on housing in Makurdi Metropolis” so as to make recommendations on the outcome of the findings. This is aimed at ensuring that there is a true representation of the population of Makurdi metropolis. From the mentioned areas, 40 respondents shall be randomly given questionnaire; the total of 200 respondents will be interviewed through the use of simple random sampling method. Thus, this gives the respondents equal chance of being chosen or selected. 3.5 Method of Data Collection and Technique The researcher is interested in qualitative data and the survey technique will be employed using structured questionnaire. The study is aimed at the primary source of data to be able to arrive at the effects of urbanization on housing in the areas of Makrdi metropolis. The researcher shall visit the five areas and administer 40 questionnaires to each area by hand to hand and after completion of the questionnaire by the respondents, he will then collect it from the respondents. Should the need arise, the researcher will make use of research assistants in the administering of questionnaires and interpretation to respondents. 3.6 Technique of Data Analysis The researcher shall i. Edit ii. Tabulate iii. Classify This is so because the analysis requires the breaking down of the total samples into sub groups or categories from comparison. Caution has to be taken so that these divisions may not create problems of small-scale frequencies and too large percentages, which may render certain procedure inapplicable. 3.7 Field Experience and Problems In the administration of questionnaires on the field, there were both positive and negative experiences. Those with formal education filled appropriately and returned, saying or even describing the ills of urbanization on housing. In Wadata, there was problem of language as most respondents spoke the language I found difficult to understand. This necessitated the use of research assistants during such periods of the field work. Respondents at North bank were a bit difficult to handle and as a result, 10 questionnaires got lost just in that area of the research setting. This notwithstanding, it was a worthwhile experience.   CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Introduction This chapter covers data collected, preserved and analyzed and how it answered the objectives of this research work. For the purpose of this study, 200 questionnaires were distributed but only 190 were retrieved. This was due to the fact that some of the sampled respondents were reckless and unconcerned, while others misplaced them. 4.2 Personal Information of Respondents The socio-economic information was collected over sex, ethnicity, marital status, age, educational qualification and occupation. This was to enable the research have a vast understanding of who the study population really is. Data on these socio-economic characteristics were collected and presented in table 4.1 below: Table 4.1 Socio-Demographic Variables. Characteristic Category Frequency Percentage (%) Sex Male Female 105 85 55.3 44.7 Total 190 100 Ethnic group Tiv Hausa Igede Idoma Others 122 5 21 32 10 64.2 2.6 11.1 16.5 5.3 Total 190 100 Marital Status Married Single Divorced 87 63 40 45.8 33.2 21.0 Total 190 100 Age (years) ≤25 26-35 ≥36 18 93 79 9.5 48.9 41.6 Total 190 100 Education Primary Secondary Tertiary 30 55 105 15.8 28.9 55.3 Total 190 100 Occupation Public/Civil Servants Student Business 50 101 39 26.3 53.2 20.5 Total 190 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 Table 4.1 above reveals that about 55.3% of sampled respondents were male, while 44.7% of them were female. This distribution is a fair representation of both sexes. The table also reveals that 64.2% of the respondents were Tiv by origin, 2.6% were Hausa, 11.1% were Igede, 16.8% were Idoma, and 5.3% of them belonged to other ethnic groups. The highest percentage of 64.2% of the respondents being of Tiv ethnicity was due to the dominance of this group in the study area. Table 4.1 also contains information on the marital status of respondents. In the distribution, the highest of 45.8% of the respondents were married, 33.2% were single while 21.0% were divorced. This distribution calls for the need for good housing since majority of the respondents in the study area were married with their respective families. Age distribution is another feature contained in table 4.1. In this case, majority of the sampled respondents were within the age bracket of 26-35 years, with a percentage score of 48.9%, followed by 41.6% who were between 36years and above, while about 9.5% of them were below 26years. This implies that majority of the sampled respondents were within the economic active age and hence the need for rural urban migration in search for job opportunities. Another salient issue contained in table 4.1 is the educational qualification of respondents. The table shows that majority of the studied sample had tertiary education with a percentage score of 55.3%, followed by those with secondary education 28.9% and lastly those with primary education 15.8%. This implies that the sampled respondents did actually qualify for white-collar jobs, hence, the migration from rural to urban areas. Table 4.1 indicates, further that majority of the respondents were students 53.2%, 26.3% were public/civil servants, while 20.5% were business artisans. This was due to the fact that majority of the inhabitants of the study area were students of Benue State University, University of Agriculture, College of Advanced and Professional Studies and many other primary, secondary and tertiary institutions which abound in the study area. 4.3 Identifying the Cause of Urbanization in Makurdi Metropolis In order to identify the causes of urbanization in Makurdi metropolis, data on the reasons for migration were collected and presented in table 4.2 below: Table 4.2 Causes of Migration in Makurdi Metropolis. S/No Reason for Migration Frequency Percentage (%) 1 Availability of jobs 79 41.6 2 Security reasons 20 10.5 3 Education 91 47.9 Total 190 100 Source: Field Survey 2013. Table 4.2 above shows that majority of the respondents migrated to urban centers for educational purposes (47.9%), followed by those who migrated for job opportunities 41.6%, while 10.5% of them migrated for security reasons. This distribution justifies the reason why majority of the sampled respondents were students. 4.4 Identifying the Category of Migration that enhances Urbanization in Makurdi Metropolis. In order to clearly identify the category of migration that enhances urbanization in Makurdi metropolis, data on the category of migration was collected and presented in table 4.3 below:   Table 4.3 Category of Migration that enhances Urbanization in Makurdi Metropolis. Migration Category Frequency Percentage (%) Rural to urban 77 40.5 Urban to urban 45 23.7 Other types 68 35.8 Total 190 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013. From table 4.3 above, it was discovered that as high as 40.5% of the respondent accepted that, rural to urban migration mostly contribute to the mass increase of people in Makurdi. On urban to urban migration, data gotten showed that, 23.7% of the respondents affirmed that, urban to urban migration increase the number of people in Makurdi metropolis. Data also showed 35.8% of respondents agreeing that other types of migration enhance urbanization in Makurdi metropolis. 4.5 Effects of Urbanization on Housing in Makurdi Metropolis In a bid to successfully identify the effects of urbanization on housing in Makurdi metropolis, data on the responses of respondents in this light were collected and presented in the table below: Table 4.4 Effects of Urbanization on Housing in Makurdi Metropolis. S/No. Effects Frequency Percentage 1 High cost of house rent 50 26.3 2 Shortage of houses 27 14.2 3 Poor quality of houses 64 33.7 4 Land Lord/Lady tenant clashes 15 7.9 5 High cost of building materials 34 17.9 Total 190 100 Source: Field Survey. 2013. Table 4.4 above shows that housing in Makurdi metropolis is not without the effects of urbanization. The first major effect identified by respondents was that of poor quality houses. This was because the increase in population due to urbanization prompted the provision of houses in quantity rather than quality. This in turn made the provision of houses at a very poor quality possible. This was indicated by 33.7% of the total respondents. The second major effect of urbanization on housing in Makurdi metropolis identified mostly by respondents was high cost of house rent. It was discovered through fieldwork data that, due to the high number of immigrants (particularly students) in the study area, house rent has been inflated over the years. An average house rent for a thatched house was discovered to be 20,000 a year, while for a Zinc house, an average house rent was discovered to be 50,000 annually. This, therefore, brought about discomfort and dissatisfaction to the inhabitants of the study area, particularly majority of the houses were provided in low quality. The third major effect of urbanization on housing as identified by respondents was high cost of building materials. It was discovered that, the cost of buying building materials was very high in Makurdi metropolis so that the moderate poor could not afford to build a house. This high cost was attributed to the increased demand for housing as a result of the increase in population, caused greatly by urbanization in the study area. The forth effect of urbanization on housing as revealed by the sampled respondents was shortage of houses or inadequate houses. It was discovered that, increased population brought about an increased demand for housing, and all the available houses were occupied, creating a short-run shortage in the supply of houses. These shortages could also be attributed to the high cost of building materials where Land Lords/Ladies could not afford to provide adequate houses for the highly increased population. The fifth and the last found by research effect of urbanization on housing in Makurdi metropolis as indentified by the respondents was land lord/ladies tenant clashes. It was discovered that there was a clash of interest between the land lords and their tenants as well as it was between landladies and tenants. This was discovered to be due to the fact that land lords were concerned more about the provision of quantity, while tenants needed quality. 4.6 Ascertaining the Causes of Housing Problems in Makurdi Metropolis. In order to assess, better, the factors responsible for housing problems in Makurdi metropolis, data on the causes of housing problems were collected and presented in table 4.5 below: Table 4.5 Ascertaining the Causes of Housing Problems in Makurdi Metropolis. S/No. Causes Frequency Percentage (%) 1 Over crowding 70 36.8 2 High cost of house rent 42 22.1 3 Inadequate power supply 41 21.6 4 Unemployment 20 10.5 5 Inadequate water supply and poor sanitation measures. 17 9 Total 190 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013. Table 4.5 above shows that so many factors were responsible for the hosing problems in Makurdi metropolis. The most paramount factor indicated was overcrowding. It was discovered that overcrowding was the major cause of housing problems in the study area. This was because, urbanization brought about an increase in population and this resulted into insufficient houses, rendering many homeless and thus, the multiplier effects thereof, which accompanied overcrowding. Secondly, high cost of house rent was identified as another major cause of housing problem in the study area. The inability of tenants to meet land Lords’ asking rent amount, as well as the inability of many land lords to afford quality housing for tenants resulted in housing problems in Makurdi metropolis. Thirdly, inadequate power supply was considered another major factor responsible for housing problems in Makurdi metropolis. In the study area, power supply is always unstable as a result of intermittent fluctuations. This then removes the comfort and pleasure thereof, leaving inhabitants confused and frustrated. Fourthly, unemployment was also considered a major cause of housing problem in Makurdi metropolis. This was because the unemployed nature of most respondents hindered their access to quality houses as a result of limited income. This also prevented the provision of quality houses, especially those who had the land but lacked the means to develop it. Lastly, inadequate water supply in homes and places of work (organization) was also part of the housing problems. This is due to the fact that, water is not supplied in most homes as tenants would leave their homes in search of water. poor sanitation was also part of the housing problems in the research setting as refuse dumps were discovered in North Bank, Wadata, Gyado villa, Wurukum and High Level around the roads and respondents described that, they had no option but to throw refuse where they saw the chance to. 4.7 Suggesting the Strategies that can Solve Urbanization Problem in Makurdi Metropolis. For the aim of ensuring the provision of better housing in the study area, information on the solutions to the problems raised in (4.6) were collected and presented in table 4.6 as follows:   Table 4.6 Strategies that can solve Urbanization Problems in Makurdi Metropolis S/No Strategy Frequency Percentage (%) 1 Over crowding 84 44.2 2 House rent subsidy 49 25.8 3 Adequate power supply 34 17.9 4 Employment generation 23 12.1 Total 190 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013. Table 4.6 above suggests ways of solving urbanization problems in the study area. In order to solve the problem of overcrowding, respondents suggested the method of population control. This could be achieved either through birth control or by imposition of laws to reduce urbanization (rural-urban migration). As a measure to make house rent affordable to tenants, respondents suggested that house rent be subsidized. This could be done in two ways; through government intervention in housing, or through the imposition of laws hindering land owners from increasing house rent unnecessarily. Meanwhile, respondents suggested adequate power supply so as to do away with the devastating effects of inadequate supply of power in the study area. Job/employment creation was earmarked by sampled respondents as a measure against unemployment as urbanization problems in the study area. According to the respondents’ opinion, the measures if adopted would go a long way in reducing to an extent, if not completely, the problems of urbanization in Makurdi metropolis. 4.8 Discussion of Findings In studying the effects of urbanization on housing in Makurdi metropolis and based on these findings of this research, the researcher presents below, the following discussions. The study discovered that majority of the sample respondents were males as compared to females as indicated on table 4.1. it was also discovered that majority of the respondents were of the Tiv ethnicity; majority were married; majority were within the age range of 26-35years, majority were of tertiary education qualification and majority were students, all these were shown on table 4.1. The study also discovered that some factors were responsible for enhancing migration in Makurdi metropolis, including availabilities of jobs, security reasons and education, with education perceived by respondents as the major causes as shown in table 4.2. The study discovered further that both categories of migration (rural-urban, urban-urban and other types) enhanced urbanization in the study area, with rural-urban migration marked as the most outstanding as presented in table 4.3. The study discovered, again, that urbanization had various effects on housing in Makurdi metropolis including high cost of house rent, shortage of house, poor quality of houses, Land Lord-tenant clashes, and high cost of building materials contained in table 4.4. It was also discovered that some factors were responsible for housing problems in Makurdi metropolis which respondents identified as overcrowding, high cost of house rent, inadequate power supply and unemployment and inadequate water supply/poor sanitation measures. These were discovered as found in table 4.5 some strategies were considered for solving these problems as contained in table 4.6. These included; population control, house rent subsidy, adequate supply of power, adequate water supply, proper sanitary measures by the appropriate government agency and employment generation for the fast growing population of the research setting.   CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 Introduction This research is designed to achieve the objectives – to identify the causes of urbanization in Benue State and Makurdi metropolis in particular. Again, the research has the objective to identify the type of migration that enhances urbanization in Makurdi metropolis. The research titled “the effects of urbanization on housing in Makurdi metropolis” also has as one of its objectives to know the effects urbanization has on housing in Makurdi metropolis. To know how urbanization causes housing problems in Makurdi metropolis was the fourth objective and finally, it was the objective of my research work to suggest various strategies that can be employed to solve urbanization problems in Makurdi metropolis. 5.2 Summary Urbanization which is seen as one of the indices of modernization and industrialization is gotten to be occurring fast throughout the developing world and in most regions of the world far in excess of economic advances in the developing countries. This research has findings in fulfillment to the objectives stated in chapter one. To know the causes of urbanization in Benue state and Makurdi metropolis in particular, the research findings indicates the availability of jobs, security reasons and education to be the more reasons why the population of Makurdi is increasing rapidly by the day. Rural to Urban migration was found to be the type of migration that is actually pumping population into Makurdi metropolis. Again, the research found that, as Makurdi metropolis gets urbanized, it invariably grows with attendant effects of High cost of house rent, shortage of houses due to the high influx of people for education, business and other economic activities. To know how urbanization causes housing problems in Makurdi metropolis, the research also found some irregularities as being the problems urbanization causes on housing and these are; overcrowding, high cost of house rent, in adequate power supply, unemployment and inadequate water supply and poor sanitation measures Makurdi metropolis. 5.3 Conclusion The above discuss lays emphasis on the effects of urbanization on housing in Makurdi metropolis which the relationship is that, urbanization has actually increased the rise of people migrating to Makurdi metropolis. This is for the fact that in Benue State, the capital is Makurdi: and it has relatively better standard of living and access to social amenities if compared to other towns in Benue State. Furthermore, people now migrate mostly from rural areas to Makurdi for the search of greener pastures. The effects of urbanization on housing in Makurdi metropolis are: high cost of house rent, shortage of houses, poor quality of houses, poor quality of houses, Landlord-tenant clashes and high cost of building materials. Housing problems are that of overcrowding, high cost of house rent, inadequate power supply, unemployment and inadequate water supply and sanitation measures. These leaves the town dirty and hamper business activities thereby limiting productivity and output from organizations. It leaves the citizens and majority of the inhabitants in perpetual lack and need for improved better living conditions as such people roam the streets without what to hold unto and as such may even lead others to criminality. 5.4 Recommendation The usefulness of any research work lies to be appreciated when it carries solutions to the found by research problems. This is why it is imperative that these recommendations and suggestions be made as to how the effects and problems of this research work could be solved. I suggest and recommend that: i. The government should have a policy on population control. This will be on who gets into a town and for what purpose. In families too, there should be a fixed number of children expected of a family as this would reduce the population which is increasing against resources to cater for the growing population. ii. The government should make use of town planners and demographers so as to pass legislation on the maximum number of households per compound and the maximum number of people per room. This will put a check on overcrowding in rooms and over stretching of facilities in compounds. iii. House rent subsidy; house by government should be rationed and made to favour all levels, the middle income and the low income class rather than building estates for the rich a upper class alone. iv. Adequate supply of power would boost the output and productivity of organizations. Should the government do this, it will also lead to employment generation for the fast growing population. also the providence of basic social amenities to the rural settings will minimize the high level of migrating to the urban centres for good life. v. The health management board should carry out a programme in educating people on the need for proper sanitary conditions. The drainages of gutters and packing of the indiscriminate refuse to incinerators will make the town clean and further help cub health hazards that are associated with poor sanitary conditions. Water lines should be provided and made to work i.e supply water where water is lacking. The state and local government as well as individuals should be bent on building standardized houses that meet the modern standard of housing and town planners should check the incessant construction of substandard buildings (squatters) so as to correct and ameliorate building even where buildings are not supposed to be erected. Fines be imposed on people who indiscriminately dump refuse or sewage on the roads and in drainages within the town. Finally, for these problems to be ameliorated, the government must design purposeful policies that will uplift the poor living conditions of the people that over crowd the cities for search of greener pastures. QUESTIONNAIRE SECTION A: Personal Information Instruction: Tick ( ) as Appropriate 1. Sex: Male ( ) Female ( ) 2. Ethnic Group: Tiv ( ) Hausa ( ) Igede ( ) Idoma ( ) others ( ) 3. Marital Status: Married ( ) Single ( ) Divorced ( ) 4. Age: 25 and below ( ) 26 – 35 ( ) 36 and above ( ) 5. Educational Qualification: Primary Education ( ) Secondary Education ( ) Tertiary Education ( ) 6. Occupation: Public/Civil Servant ( ) Student ( ) Business (specify)………………… Section B: General Information on Urbanization and Housing 7. Do you agree that Makurdi is an Urban center? Yes ( ) No ( ) 8. Would you attribute the migration of people to Makurdi as a search for jobs/employment? Yes ( ) No ( ) 9. What category of people do you think mostly migrate to Makurdi? People from the villages ( ) People from other towns ( ) People from other states ( ) 10. What do you think is the cause as to why people migrate to Makurdi? Availability of jobs ( ) Security reasons ( ) Education ( ) 11. What can you attribute the cost of house rent in Makurdi to? Rural-urban migration ( ) Scarcity of houses ( ) High desire for Education ( ) 12. Are you an indigene of Benue State? Yes ( ) No ( ) 13. Why have you come to settle in Makurdi town? Education ( ) Business ( ) Wage/Salary employment ( ) 14. Where do you live? Government House ( ) Personal house ( ) Rented house ( ) 15. What type of house do you live in? Round thatched House ( ) Single room apartment ( ) Two room apartment ( ) Flat with bedroom ( ) 16. How many are you per room? One ( ) Two ( ) Three ( ) Four ( ) More than four ( ) 17. Do you have toilet in your home? Yes ( ) No ( ) 18. If yes, what type of toilet? Pit ( ) Bucket ( ) Water system ( ) 19. What is the condition of the toilet? Good ( ) Moderate ( ) Bad ( ) 20. Do you have a bathroom? Yes ( ) No ( ) 21. What is the condition of the bathroom? Good ( ) Moderate ( ) Bad ( ) 22. Do you have a kitchen within the house where you live? Yes ( ) No ( ) 23. What source of water do you take? Pipe borne water ( ) Hand draw Well ( ) bore holes ( ) Stream or River ( ) Buying ( ) 24. What source of power supply do you use? PHCN ( ) Generator ( ) Lantern ( ) any other (specify)…………….. 25. Do you have a health facility or center near you? Yes ( ) No ( ) 26. What type of health facility is near you for use? Hospital ( ) Pharmaceutical Store ( ) Maternity centre ( ) Any other (specify)…………………. 27. How is the cost of rent? High ( ) Moderate ( ) Low ( ) 28. What do you think is responsible for housing shortage in Makurdi town? i. ……………………………………………………………………… ii. ……………………………………………………………………… iii. ……………………………………………………………………… 29. Suggest solutions to the problems stated in question 28 above. i. ……………………………………………………………………… ii. ……………………………………………………………………… iii. ………………………………………………………………………