THE IMPACT OF LAND DEGRADATION ON FARMERS IN BURUKU LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF BENUE STATE. BY JACOB YOL 08123463845 MARCH, 2014 ABSTRACT This study sets out to examine the impact of land degradation on farmers in Buruku local government area of Benue State. Specifically, the study investigated the causes, typologies and as well the effects of land degradation on farmers. The study utilized descriptive survey research design and data was collected using interviews and questionnaires administered to one hundred and twenty (120) respondents. The sample was obtained using random sampling method. Data was analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Findings show that land degradation has serious impact on farmers in Buruku local government area of Benue State. It is therefore recommended that, the federal, State and Local government should initiate policies and programmes to manage land use these policies and programs should be well executed to minimize land degradation a level of tolerance. Moreso, to develop land use models that incorporate both natural and human-induced factors that contribute to land degradation and that could be used for land use planning and management. TABLE OF CONTENT Title Page…………………………………………………………………. i Table of Contents………………………………………………………… ii List of Tables……………………………………………………………… iii Abstract……………………………………………………………………. iv CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………. 1 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem……………………….….. 3 1.3 Research Questions…………………………………………..…… 4 1.4 Aims and Objective of the Study……………………………….. 4 1.5 Significance of the Study……………………………………….. . 5 1.6 Scope of the Study ………………………………………………… 5 1.7 The Study Area………….………………………………………….. 6 1.7.1 Relief & Drainage ………………………………………………….. 6 1.7.2 Climate………………………………………………………………….6 1.7.3 Soil and Vegetation…………………………………………………..7 1.8 Definition of Terms…………………………………………………. 7 CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review 2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………… 10 2.1 The Concept of Land Degradation…..……………………..…… 10 2.2 Types of Land Degradation .………………………………….…… 14 2.3 The Causes of Land Degradation ……………………………...... 18 2.3.1 Macro Pressure Driving Land Management Changes…………18 2.3.2 Localised Pressures Influencing the Scale of Degradation… 22 2.3.3 Interaction between Land Degradation Processes………….. 27 2.4 The Effects of Land Degradation…………………………………. 29 2.4.1 Direct (On-Site) Effects……………………………………………. 30 2.4.2 Indirect (Off-Site) Effects…………………………………………. 33 CHAPTER THREE: Methodology 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….. 50 3.2 The Study Population………………………………………………. 50 3.3 Data Needs………………………………………………………….… 50 3.4 Sources of Data…………….……………………………………….. 50 3.5 Instrument of Data Collection…………………………………... 51 3.5.1 Observation………………………………………………………….. 51 3.5.2 Oral Interview …………………………………….………………… 51 3.5.3 Questionnaire………………………………………………………... 51 3.6 Sampling Frame…………………….……………………………….. 52 3.7 Sampling Size………..……………………………………………..… 52 3.8 Method of Data Analysis…………………………………………… 52 CHAPTER FOUR: Data Presentation and Analysis 4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………… 54 4.2 Age Distribution of Respondents…………………………..……. 54 4.3 Distribution of Respondents by Qualification………………… 55 4.4 Distribution of Respondents by Occupation………………….. 56 4.5 Ways In Which Land Degradation Affects Farming…..…….. 57 4.6 Types of Land Degradation………………………………………… 58 4.7 Causes of Land Degradation……………………………………… 59 4.8 Signs of Land Degradation………………………………………... 60 4.9 Effects of Land Degradation on Farming………………………. 61 4.10 Strategies of Reducing Land Degradaion……………………… 62 4.11 Discussion of Findings…………………………………………….. 63 CHAPTER FIVE: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….. 64 5.2 Summary………………………………………………………..……. 65 5.3 Conclusion……………………………………………………………. 65 5.4 Recommendation…………………..……………………………….. 66 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Overview of the causative factors of different soil degradation processes Table 2: Interactions between different types of soil degradation Table 3: Overview of direct impacts of land degradation processes Table 4: Showing the Chosen District and Council Wards. Table 5: Age Distribution of Respondents Table 6: Distribution of Respondents by Qualification Table 7: Distribution of Respondents by Occupation Table 8: Ways in which Land Degradation Affects Farming Table 9: Types of Land Degradation Table 10: Causes of Land degradation Table 11: Signs of Land Degradation Table 12: Effect of Land Degradation on Farming CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Land degradation is the consequence of multiple processes that both directly and indirectly reduce the utility of land. The consequence of a complex, wide-ranging suite of processes which exert pressure on land and resources; land degradation is defined by the FAO as a “process which lowers the current and/or potential capability of soil to produce goods and services”. Land degradation is a composite term, it has no single readily identifiable feature, but instead describes how one or more of the land resources (soil, water, vegetation, rocks, air, climate, relief) has changed for the worse (Stocking, 2000). The term land degradation is often used interchangeably with that of “soil degradation” and the two are closely linked as soil degradation processes constitute the most significant land degradation processes. Degradation can be the consequence of physical, chemical and biological shifts driven by environmental, social and economic pressures. Importantly, however, the extent of problems associated depends upon the sensitivity and resilience of the land itself. This in turn is defined by the environmental characteristics of the environment, i.e. climate, hydrology, topography, land use and bedrock. Impacts associated will also vary dependent upon how the land interacts with the surrounding air and water resources, as well as human settlement and land use needs. Not only does this make land degradation difficult to define, but also to monitor and combat effectively. Land, and its soils, is a fundament for life; the substrate for the vast majority of agricultural production and biodiversity on the planet. It also provides broader services, for example, water filtration and the balancing of peak flows linked to rainfall events. The land effects and is affected by the quality of other environmental media, i.e. water and air. It is fundamental to our ability to feed our populations, manage our water supplies and adapt to the extreme events anticipated to result from global climate change. Importantly, if inappropriately managed, land can also contribute significant quantities of greenhouse gas emissions, lead to flood events, periods of drought, reduced farm yields and decreased water quality. Indeed, land degradation is a biophysical process driven by socio-economic and political factors with consequences for society at large. Soil degradation represents an important key element of any land degradation process. While land degradation can encompass processes not exclusively focused upon soils e.g. hydrology is also of vital importance; soil quality is a fundamental indicator of the health of the land and the extent of degradation. Soil is generally defined as the top layer of the earth’s crust, formed by mineral particles, organic matter, water, air and living organisms. It is the interface between earth, air and water and hosts most of the biosphere. As soil formation is an extremely slow process, soil can be considered essentially as a non-renewable resource. Soil provides us with food, biomass and raw materials (European Commission, 2006). Soil is subject to a series of degradation processes. In Buruku Local Government Area of Benue State, land degradation has significantly affected farming activities in terms of yield reduction, depletion of soil fertility, loss in productivity and environmental pollution/contamination. Also, the recent past flood experience that engulf Buruku and other surrounding local government lead to the wash of the top layer soil on which farming activities takes place and has resulted to a significant decrease in farm yield and loss of soil nutrient/fertility. This and many more has triggered consistent degradation in Buruku Local Government as soil nutrient are lost from time to time leading to a value depreciation of land and the quality and quantity of farm yield which has affected farming activities over time. 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Land degradation has remained an important global issue for the 21st century because of its adverse impact on agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effect on food security and the quality of life. Productivity impacts of land degradation are due to a decline in land quality on site where degradation occurs (e.g. erosion) and off site where sediments are deposited. However, the on-site impact of land degradation on productivity has metamorphosed to the recent flooding that engulfed some States in Nigeria. The relative magnitude of economic losses due to productivity decline versus environmental deterioration also has created a debate. Some economists argue that the on-site impact of soil erosion and other degradative processes are not severe enough to warrant implementing any action plan at a national or an international level. Land degradation has affected farming activities as farm yield and loss of soil nutrient are been triggered by flooding, water erosion and chemical degradation which has reduced the quality and quantity of crops within Buruku Local government. Farmers in Buruku Local Government Area of Benue State invest meaningfully on their farm lands because they primarily engaged in farming for peasantry and subsistence. Land degradation has therefore, frustrated their efforts as it affects agronomic productivity which has also lead to a decline in food security and the quality of life. These and many more gave impetus to this study. 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS This study attempts to provide answers to the following researchable questions formulated. 1. What are the types of land degradation prevalent in the area? 2. What are the effects of land degradation on farming activities in the area? 3. How does Land degradation affect farming in the area? 4. What strategies are employed to reduce land degradation in the area? 1.4 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The aims and objectives of this study include: a) To identify the types of land degradation prevalent in the area. b) To examine the effects of land degradation on farming activities in the area. c) To assess the strategies that are employed to reduce land degradation in the area. 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The study of the impact of land degradation on farmers is geographically important because man relies on land for almost all of his activities and when there is an issue with land, which means man also is affected because his activities will be disrupted. The study is also significant because from the cause and effect of land degradation the solutions to land degradation can be found. More so, it will help the government to assist communities suffering from land degradation. Theoretically, this research work will help members of the public to have vast knowledge on causes and effects of land degradation on man and possible solutions to minimize or manage the situation when it arise will be unveil to the public. This may help them to be constructive in their criticism and may also help subsequent researchers to build on it and improve on their work. 1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY This work is limited to determining the impact of land degradation on farming in Buruku Local Government Area of Benue State; emphasis would be laid on the types of land degradation prevalent in Buruku Local Government Area, the effects of land degradation on farming activities in Buruku Local Government Area, how land degradation affects farming activities in Buruku Local Government Area of Benue State and possible ways on how land degradation can be minimized. The scope of this research is however limited to Buruku Local Government Area of Benue State due to the fact that the area has experience land degradation and that’s why the study is important to this study area. 1.7 THE STUDY AREA Buruku Local Government lies between latitude 70 7’ and 70 44’ north of the equator and longitude 80 45’E and 90 30’ E of the Greenwich meridian. Five local government areas border Buruku Local Government , namely: Guma to the North, Ushongo to the South, Katsina-Ala in the Southeast, Logo to the Northeast and Gboko to the West. 1.7.1 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE Buruku has a large area of flood plains stretching along the banks of the North West and flowing into River katsina-Ala. These flood plains are quite extensive, sometimes, extending more than a kilometer inland. The area is generally low-lying averaging between 100-250 meters above sea level. Generally, the topography is undulating with buttes, mesa, knoll and in frequent times inselbergs (Nyagba, 1995). 1.7.2 CLIMATE The climate of Buruku local Government falls within a climatic condition according to Koppen’s classification scheme (Nyagba, 1995). The area experiences two seasons namely; the dry season and rainy season. The dry season normally last from November to March while the wet or rainy season lasts from April to October. Rainfall averages between 125mm to 2000mm per annum with peak period in May and September while mean annual temperature is 32.50C but there is a peak between Februray and March when temperature ranges as high as 350C to 400C (Nyagba, 1995). From March to October there is a Southwest wind from the equatorial rain belt. These changes last between November to February to a dry dusty wind from the Northeast known as the harmattan. 1.7.3 SOIL AND VEGETATION The dominant soil found in Buruku is the ferruginous tropical soils that are characteristics of Benue. Along the flood plains of River Katsina-Ala, hydromorphic soils are present. Clay and loamy soils are also found in small deposits in the study area. Buruku falls within the Guinea Savanna belt of Nigeria and is mainly grassland savanna with scattered trees. The common tree species found include Mahogany, Malina, Tean, Sheabutter, Danielle Oleverri etc Grass species include Spear grass, Gambe grass, Cida Accuta etc. 1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS This study would define the following terms so as to give readers a better understanding on the phenomenon under study. 1. Land Degradation: is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by one or more combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land which results to reduction of the quality and quantity of human activities animals activities or natural means example water causes soil erosion, wind, e.t.c 2. Soil Erosion: Soil erosion is the wearing away of the land surface by physical forces such as rainfall, flowing water, wind, ice, temperature change, gravity or other natural or anthropogenic agents that abrade, detach and remove soil or geological material from one point on the earth's surface to be deposited elsewhere. 3. Soil Contamination (local and diffuse): This type of degradation refers to the confirmed presence of “dangerous substances” caused by man in such a level that they may pose a significant risk to a receptor in such a way that action is needed to manage the risks (Van Camp et al., 2004 b). 4. Soil Salinisation: Soil salinisation is a process that leads to an excessive increase of water soluble salts in soil. The salts which accumulate include chlorides, sulphates, carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium. A distinction can be made between primary and secondary salinisation processes. Primary salinisation involves accumulation of salts through natural processes such as physical or chemical weathering and transport from saline geological deposits or groundwater. Secondary salinisation is caused by human interventions such as use of salt-rich irrigation water or other inappropriate irrigation practices, and/or poor drainage conditions (Kibblewhite et al, 2008). 5. Soil Sealing: The covering of the soil surface with impervious materials as a result of urban development and infrastructure construction is known as soil sealing. The term is also used to describe a change in the nature of the soil leading to impermeability (e.g. compaction by agricultural machinery) (Kibblewhite et al. 2008). 6. Landslides: A landslide is the movement of a mass of rock, debris, artificial fill or earth down a slope, under the force of gravity (USGS, 2004). 7. Soil Compaction: Soil compaction is a form of physical degradation in which soil biological activity and soil productivity for agricultural and forest cropping are reduced, resulting in decreased water infiltration capacity and increased erosion risk (Envasso project website, 2007). 8. Water erosion refers to the loss of topsoil, terrain definition/mass movement. 9. Wind erosion refers to the loss of topsoil, terrain deformation, over blowing. 10. Chemical degradation refers to the loss of nutrients and/or organic matter, salinisation, acidification, pollution. 11. Physical degradation (i.e. compaction, sealing and crusting, water logging, subsidence of organic soils). CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter focuses on discussing the impact of land degradation of farmers. The researcher will examine views and opinions of people and writers based on the impact of land degradation which would be used for geographical analysis. Attention would be focused on the concept of land degradation, the types of land degradation, the impact of land degradation on farmers and as well the causes and effects of land degradation in Nigeria would be examined with a view of proffering possible solutions that would minimize land degradation. 2.1 The Concept of Land Degradation Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by one or more combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land (Wikipedia). Eswaran (2001) maintains that, land degradation refers to a decline in land quality caused by human activities, has been a major global issue during the 20th century and will remain high on the international agenda in the 21st century. The importance of land degradation among global issues is enhanced because of its impact on world food security and quality of the environment. High population density is not necessarily related to land degradation; it is what a population does to the land that determines the extent of degradation. People can be a major asset in reversing a trend towards degradation. However, they need to be healthy and politically and economically motivated to care for the land, as subsistence agriculture, poverty, and illiteracy can be important causes of land and environmental degradation. Land degradation can be considered in terms of the loss of actual or potential productivity or utility as a result of natural or anthropic factors; it is the decline in land quality or reduction in its productivity. In the context of productivity, land degradation results from a mismatch between land quality and land use (Beinroth et al., 1994). Mechanisms that initiate land degradation include physical, chemical, and biological processes (Lal, 1994). Important among physical processes are a decline in soil structure leading to crusting, compaction, erosion, desertification, anaerobism, environmental pollution, and unsustainable use of natural resources. Significant chemical processes include acidification, leaching, salinization, decrease in cation retention capacity, and fertility depletion. Biological processes include reduction in total and biomass carbon, and decline in land biodiversity. The latter comprises important concerns related to eutrophication of surface water, contamination of groundwater, and emissions of trace gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, NOx) from terrestrial/aquatic ecosystems to the atmosphere. Soil structure is the important property that affects all three degradative processes. Thus, land degradation is a biophysical process driven by socioeconomic and political causes. This has been the case in Buruku Local Government Area of Benue State which has attracted attention from all and sundry as farmers have experience lost in productivity which has affected domestic consumption and as well the market. Factors of land degradation are the biophysical processes and attributes that determine the kind of degradative processes, e.g. erosion, salinization, etc. These include land quality (Eswaran et al., 2000) as affected by its intrinsic properties of climate, terrain and landscape position, climax vegetation, and biodiversity, especially soil biodiversity. Causes of land degradation are the agents that determine the rate of degradation. These are biophysical (land use and land management, including deforestation and tillage methods), socioeconomic (e.g. land tenure, marketing, institutional support, income and human health), and political (e.g. incentives, political stability) forces that influence the effectiveness of processes and factors of land degradation. Depending on their inherent characteristics and the climate, lands vary from highly resistant, or stable, to those that are vulnerable and extremely sensitive to degradation. Fragility, extreme sensitivity to degradation processes, may refer to the whole land, a degradation process (e.g. erosion) or a property (e.g. soil structure). Stable or resistant lands do not necessarily resist change. They are in a stable steady state condition with the new environment. Under stress, fragile lands degrade to a new steady state and the altered state is unfavorable to plant growth and less capable of performing environmental regulatory functions. Land degradation has received widespread debate at the global level as evidenced by the literature: UNEP, 1992; Johnson and Lewis, 1995; Oldeman et al., 1992; Middleton and Thomas, 1997; Dregne, 1992; Maingnet, 1994; Lal and Stewart, 1994; Lal et al., 1997. At least two distinct schools have emerged regarding the prediction, severity, and impact of land degradation. One school believes that it is a serious global threat posing a major challenge to humans in terms of its adverse impact on biomass productivity and environment quality (Pimentel et al., 1995; Dregne and Chou, 1994). Ecologists, soil scientists, and agronomists primarily support this argument. The second school, comprising primarily economists, believes that if land degradation is a severe issue, why market forces have not taken care of it. Supporters argue that land managers (e.g. farmers) have vested interest in their land and will not let it degrade to the point that it is detrimental to their profits (Crosson, 1997). There are a number of factors that perpetuate the debate on land degradation: There are numerous terms and definitions that are a source of confusion, misunderstanding, and misinterpretation. A wide range of terms is used in the literature, often with distinct disciplinary-oriented meaning, and leading to misinterpretation among disciplines. Some common terms used are soil degradation, land degradation, and desertification. While there is a clear distinction between ‘soil’ and ‘land’ (the term land refers to an ecosystem comprising land, landscape, terrain, vegetation, water, climate), there is no clear distinction between the terms ‘land degradation’ and ‘desertification’. Desertification refers to land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid areas due to anthropic activities (UNEP, 1993; Darkoh, 1995). Many researchers argue that this definition of desertification is too narrow because severe land degradation resulting from anthropic activities can also occur in the temperate humid regions and the humid tropics. The term ‘degradation’ or ‘desertification’ refers to irreversible decline in the ‘biological potential’ of the land. The ‘biological potential’ in turn depends on numerous interacting factors and is difficult to define. The confusion is further exacerbated by the definition of ‘dryland’ where different definitions are used. It is important to standardize the terminology, and develop a precise, objective, and unambiguous definition accepted by all disciplines. Because of different definitions and terminology, a large variation in the available statistics on the extent and rate of land degradation also exists. Two principal sources of data include the global estimates of desertification by Dregne and Chou (1994), and of land degradation by the International Soil Reference and Information Centre (Oldeman et al., 1992; Oldeman, 1994). 2.2 Types of Land Degradation The literature (Oldeman et al., 1991; EEA, 1995; Scherr and Yadav, 1996) provides various classifications of soil degradation processes. For example, in 1991, in preparation of the world map on the status of human-induced soil degradation known as the GLASOD (Global Assessment of Soil Deterioration), a general classification of soil degradation was developed by ISRIC (International Soil Reference and Information Centre), in cooperation with FAO and UNEP. In this classification, all forms of soil degradation are grouped into four major types, each including several subtypes: • Water erosion (i.e. loss of topsoil, terrain definition/mass movement); • Wind erosion (i.e. loss of topsoil, terrain deformation, over blowing); • Chemical degradation (i.e. loss of nutrients and/or organic matter, salinization, acidification, pollution); • Physical degradation (i.e. compaction, sealing and crusting, water logging, subsidence of organic soils). The Communication “Towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection” (European Commission, 2002), set out a core list of degradation which the key degradation processes identified are as follows. Soil erosion: Soil erosion is the wearing away of the land surface by physical forces such as rainfall, flowing water, wind, ice, temperature change, gravity or other natural or anthropogenic agents that abrade, detach and remove soil or geological material from one point on the earth's surface to be deposited elsewhere. By removing the most fertile topsoil, erosion reduces soil productivity and, where soils are shallow, may lead to an irreversible loss of natural farmland. Soil erosion can be driven by both natural and anthropogenic causes. The later increases the magnitude and frequency of the process (Van Camp et al., 2004 a). Soil contamination (local and diffuse): This type of degradation refers to the confirmed presence of “dangerous substances” caused by man in such a level that they may pose a significant risk to a receptor in such a way that action is needed to manage the risks (Van Camp et al., 2004 b). Contamination can be local or diffuse. Diffuse contamination is generally caused by contaminants transported over wide areas, often far from the source. It includes heavy metals, acidification, nutrient surplus (eutrophication), etc. Local contamination (contaminated sites) is a problem in restricted areas (or sites) around the source, where there is a direct link to the source of contamination (EEA, 2000). Soil salinisation: Soil salinisation is a process that leads to an excessive increase of water soluble salts in soil. The salts which accumulate include chlorides, sulphates, carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium. A distinction can be made between primary and secondary salinisation processes. Primary salinisation involves accumulation of salts through natural processes such as physical or chemical weathering and transport from saline geological deposits or groundwater. Secondary salinisation is caused by human interventions such as use of salt-rich irrigation water or other inappropriate irrigation practices, and/or poor drainage conditions (Kibblewhite et al, 2008). Decline in soil organic matter (SOM): Organic matter (OM) is an important component of soils because of its influence on soil structure and stability, water retention, cation exchange capacity, soil ecology and biodiversity, and as a source of plant nutrients. Soil OM plays a major role in maintaining soil functions. A decline in OM content is accompanied by a decrease in fertility and loss of structure, which together exacerbate overall soil degradation (Van Camp et al., 2004 c). Soil sealing: The covering of the soil surface with impervious materials as a result of urban development and infrastructure construction is known as soil sealing. The term is also used to describe a change in the nature of the soil leading to impermeability (e.g. compaction by agricultural machinery) (Kibblewhite et al. 2008). Therefore, sealing of the soil and land consumption are closely interrelated; when natural, semi-natural and cultivated land is covered by built surfaces and structures, this degrades soil functions or causes their loss. Landslides: A landslide is the movement of a mass of rock, debris, artificial fill or earth down a slope, under the force of gravity (USGS, 2004). Landslides threaten soil functioning in two ways: through the removal of soil from its in situ position, and the deposition of colluvium on in situ soil down slope from the area where the soil mass “failed” (Envasso project website, 2007). Soil compaction: Soil compaction is a form of physical degradation in which soil biological activity and soil productivity for agricultural and forest cropping are reduced, resulting in decreased water infiltration capacity and increased erosion risk (Envasso project website, 2007). The decrease in pore volume that accompanies compaction is largely due to a reduction in macrospores, which provide connectivity for water and gas movements through the soil profile (Kibblewhite et al. 2008). Loss of soil biodiversity: Soil biodiversity is generally defined as the variability of living organisms in soil and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. The soil biota plays many fundamental roles in delivering key ecosystem goods and services, and is both directly and indirectly responsible for carrying out many important functions including food and fibre production and the provision of certain pharmaceuticals, as well as the detoxification of xenobiotics and pollutants and regulation of atmospheric composition. Decline in soil biodiversity is generally considered as the reduction of forms of life living in soils, both in terms of quantity and variety (Kibblewhite et al., 2008). These typologies of land degradation has great effect on farmers as they are subsequently looked upon as producers of food and when such typologies ensures it affects productivity and supply to the market. 2.3 Causes of Land Degradation The geographical distribution of land and soil degradation depends on several factors. Degradation is the consequence of physical, chemical and biological shifts driven by environmental, social and economic pressures. Importantly, however, the extent of problems associated depends upon the sensitivity and resilience of the land itself. This in turn is defined by the environmental characteristics of the environment, i.e. climate, hydrology, topography, land use and bedrock. Anthropogenically induced pressures and natural factors therefore interact to determine the nature and extent of degradation in a given locality. The pressures driving land degradation can be divided into two different classes. There are a suite of macro level social and economic pressures that are driving changes in the management of land and our environmental systems. These shifts lead to increased pressure upon our land and soil resources and as a consequence increase degradation potential. Macro pressures drive decisions at the local level resulting in actions and management practices that can directly or indirectly place pressures upon the land and soil, leading to degradation. These localised pressures and their interaction with environmental conditions are explored in table 1 2.3.1 Macro Pressures Driving Land Management Changes There are a number of broad social and economic trends which in turn lead to pressure upon land. These include economic growth, demographic dynamics, urbanisation and different human activities such as tourism, agriculture, transport, and industry/energy activities. These impacts are compounded by anthropogenically induced changes in environmental conditions leading to climate change and water stress. These trends can eventually result in degradation processes, for example through changing intensity of land use. For example, urbanisation, suburbanisation and urban sprawl are the most important drivers of soil loss due to soil sealing. These processes are in turn driven by complex socio-economic factors including the land development policies, migration from urban areas and economic growth. Priority macro level drivers are explained briefly below: Demography: An increase in population results in an increased demand for housing and other facilities, such as offices, shops, and public infrastructure. This, in turn, can lead to an increase of soil surface with impervious materials as a result of urban development and infrastructure construction and deforestation. Economy: A booming economy results in construction of new commercial and industrial buildings. Further, economic growth creates new jobs and thus attracts more workers, leading to population growth, and construction of new houses and infrastructure. With a rise in incomes, people often choose to build larger houses, leaving smaller, older houses vacant. A change in the price of agricultural or forest products can, furthermore, affect landowners’ decisions to keep land in those uses. Also, policies aimed at supporting agricultural prices provide an incentive to keep land in farming. While agriculture does not necessarily lead to soil degradation, there is some evidence that the move to intensive agriculture has aggravated the impact on soil quality. Policy: International, national, regional, and local planning and policies influence greatly the rate at which land-use and land-cover changes, which in turn can result or avoid certain degradation processes. Furthermore, certain policies aim specifically at protecting soil (such as the Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection in Europe), or indirectly (such as the CAP reform). Technology: Technological developments influence the intensity of activities e.g. agricultural mechanisation, improvements in methods of converting biomass into energy, use of information-processing technologies in crop and pest management, and the development of new plant and animal strains through research in biotechnology. Such developments often alter the usefulness and demand for different types of lands. Extension of basic transport infrastructure such as roads, railways, and airports, can further take up land resources and result in their overexploitation and degradation. Climate change: Changes in short-term variation, as well as long-term gradual changes in temperature and precipitation, is expected to be an additional stress on rates of land degradation. Climate change-induced land degradation is expected through (Eswaran et al., 2001): i. Changes in the length of days and/or seasons; ii. Recurrence of droughts, floods and other extreme climatic events; iii. Changes in temperature and precipitation which in turn reduces vegetation cover, water resource availability and soil quality; iv. Changes in land-use practices such as conversion of lands, pollution, depletion of soil nutrients. Research suggests that climate change-induced land degradation will vary geographically. The underlying adaptive capacity of both the ecosystem and communities will determine the extent and direction of impacts. Regions that are already constrained by issues such as land quality, poverty, technology constraints and other socio-economic constraints are likely to be more adversely affected. On the other hand, there is increasing evidence that land degradation is a driver of climate change. These pressures are anticipated to increase into the future and will consequently require greater emphasis and attention; for example, population growth and an increase in the ageing population. The former would result in an increased demand for food, thus increased food production and pressure on land. The latter can result in a growing number of households, though with fewer members, this in turn can lead to increasing surface area consumption for residential uses as well as associated transport infrastructure, and therefore sealing, compaction and an increase in the land that needs to be dedicated to these uses with consequent elevated pressure on remaining farmland etc. Climate change, as explained above, is an issue of paramount importance for societies and the links between climate mitigation and adaptation with the quality of our lands and the services they provide will need further consideration into the future. For example, the effects of soil erosion will worsen in the future due to changes in climate influencing rainfall patterns. Meanwhile, the scale of extreme events associated with climate change, could be exacerbated by a failure to protect lands structure and hydrological flows. 2.3.2 Localised Pressures Influencing the Scale of Degradation Specific approaches to the use and management of land, driven by the factors set out in table 1, can place pressure upon soil and land resource’s potentially resulting in their degradation. These pressures at the micro level ultimately promote land degradation; the extent and rate of degradation is determined by the interaction between these anthropogenic pressures and the naturally occurring local environmental conditions. Environmental factors, mainly biophysical processes and attributes, can determine the kind of degradative processes, e.g. erosion, salinisation, etc. These include land quality as affected by its intrinsic properties of climate, terrain and landscape position, climax vegetation, and biodiversity, especially soil biodiversity (Eswaran et al., 2001). Depending on their inherent characteristics and the climate, lands can be more or less resistant, or stable, or vulnerable and extremely sensitive to degradation. Fragility, extreme sensitivity to degradation processes, may refer to the whole land, a degradation process (e.g. erosion) or a property (e.g. soil structure). Actions exerting pressures upon soils and land include emissions of pollutants to air, water and land, land abandonment, agricultural intensification and management practices, deforestation, forest fires, waste disposal, inappropriate water management and extraction of natural resources. The nature and severity of these processes are in turn driven by macro pressures. Table 1 below demonstrates the link between key land and soil degradation processes anthropogenic pressures and environmental factors that might increase or influence the scale of the degradation process. Table 1: Overview of the causative factors of different soil degradation processes (EEA, 2003; European Commission, 2006; Görlach et al., 2004; McDonagh et al., 2006) Soil degradation process Anthropogenic Pressures Driving Degradation Environmental Factors the Level of Degradation Soil erosion ‐ Unsustainable agricultural practices • Late sowing of winter cereals • Overstocking • Poor crop management • Abandonment of terraces • Tillage (use of heavy machinery) • Inappropriate irrigation methods on slopes ‐ Soil disturbance e.g. ploughing up-and-down slopes ‐ Removal of vegetative soil cover and/or hedgerows ‐ Poor maintenance of drainage systems ‐ Changes in land structure (land leveling or disappearing of landscape elements such as hedges, shelterbelts, etc.). ‐ Inappropriate use of heavy machinery, in agricultural and forestry practices, but also during construction works ‐ Rainfall patterns and climatic conditions (e.g. long dry periods followed by intense rainfall on fragile soils, such as in the Mediterranean area) ‐ Land cover patterns ‐ Steep slopes Decline OM ‐ Conversion of grassland, forests and natural vegetation to arable land ‐ Deep ploughing of arable soils causing rapid mineralisation of labile components of OM ‐ Overgrazing, with high stocking rates ‐ Soil erosion, by water and wind ‐ Leaching ‐ Forest fires and deforestation ‐ Extraction of peat from mires and peatlands ‐ Drainage of wetlands ‐ Poor crop rotation and plant residue management such as burning crops residues ‐ Accelerated mineralisation due to management practices such as continued tillage ‐ Clay content (influences the capacity of soils to protect organic matter against mineralisation and therefore influences rates of change in organic matter content) ‐ Vegetation pattern ‐ Soil biodiversity ‐ Climatic conditions Sealing ‐ Growth in urbanisation and transport infrastructure -Increased impervious material ‐ Movement of population Contamination ‐ Point sources • Leaching from industrial and mining installations and storage tanks • Inadequate waste and waste water treatment and disposal • Accidents ‐ Diffuse sources • Use of chemicals in agriculture • Use of pesticides and fertilisers • Spread of sewage sludge and Compost • Atmospheric deposition • Illegal waste dumps and landfill sites not properly managed ‐ Buffering capacity ‐ Filterability ‐ Drainage ‐ Soil structure ‐ Vegetation and soil biodiversity ‐ Climatic condition Salinisation ‐ Inappropriate irrigation practices, e.g. with salt-rich irrigation water and/or insufficient drainage ‐ Over exploitation of groundwater (coastal areas) ‐ Deicing of roads with salts ‐ Low rainfall ‐High evapotranspiration rates ‐ Physical or chemical weathering ‐ Transport from geological deposits (natural processes due to a high salt content of the parent material) ‐ Natural disasters in coastal areas, such as tsunamis Landslides ‐ Interference with slope morphology • Constructing over-steepened slopes ‐ Deforestation and land abandonment ‐ Extractions of materials ‐ Climatic conditions (i.e. rainfall, snow melt) ‐ Seismic activity ‐ Soil structure and aggregate stability Compaction ‐ Agricultural or construction machinery (e.g. wheels, tracks or rollers) ‐ Grazing animals ‐ Large constructions works and recreational sites ‐ Soil structure ‐ Macro porosity ‐ Bearing capacity Loss of Biodiversity ‐ Unsustainable agricultural practices • Intensive soil tillage, pesticide • Use and monocultures ‐ Other forms of soil degradation, in particular soil erosion, contamination, acidification, salinisation and compaction ‐ SOM content, ‐ Chemical properties of soils (e.g. amount of soil contaminants or salts), ‐ Physical properties of soils such as porosity (affected by compaction or sealing). 2.3.3 Interactions between Land Degradation Processes It is not always possible to identify particular land degradation processes occurring and often several will take place in conjunction, or will mutually reinforce each other. For example, soil biodiversity is affected by other forms of soil degradation, in particular soil erosion, contamination, acidification, salinisation and compaction. The OECD (2003) claims that there is a strong link between soil erosion and soil biodiversity. Loss of soil biodiversity intensifies soil erosion, while erosion negatively affects soil biodiversity, decreases activity and species diversity of soil biota, and reduces the amount of microbial biomass. In addition, soil biodiversity is closely related to soil organic matter (SOM), since soils with adequate amounts of organic carbon have good structure, allow more water and air infiltration and help provide favourable biological habitats (OECD, 2003). When considering the causative factors of soil degradation, it is therefore necessary to consider these interrelations. Some of them are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Interactions between different types of soil degradation (Görlach et al., 2004) Degradation process Description of the interaction with other types of soil degradation Soil erosion ‐ It may increase the severity of flooding events by reducing the potential of soils to absorb rainfall. ‐ It leads to accelerated decline in organic matter. ‐ Increased soil erosion negatively affects soil biodiversity (decreases activity and species diversity of soil biota and the amount of microbial biomass). Decline OM ‐ Declines in OM may have an important impact on soil biodiversity, which is closely related to it (i.e. soils with an adequate amount of organic C have a good structure). ‐ It intensifies soil erosion (on the other hand, an adequate amount of organic C makes soil more resistant to erosion). ‐ Declining OM contents in soil are also associated with ongoing desertification. Sealing ‐ Increased soil sealing may intensify flooding. ‐ It may increase soil contamination (e.g. run-off water from sealed housing and traffic areas is normally unfiltered and contaminated with chemicals). ‐ It may reduce soil biodiversity (e.g. soil sealing affects the fragmentation of habitats). Contamination It can have, alone or in conjunction with acidification, a negative effect on soil biodiversity Salinisation It may reduce soil biodiversity (as those species of fauna and flora that are not tolerant to increased salinity cannot survive). Landslides Landslides can contribute to soil contamination Compaction ‐ It may give rise to water and wind erosion. ‐ It may increase the severity of flooding events by reducing the potential of soils to absorb rainfall. ‐ It may cause biological degradation. Loss of biodiversity With reduced biodiversity, the soil is less stable and more prone to erosion, as well as leaching and run-off causing water contamination 2.4 The Effects of Land Degradation Land degradation has multiple and complex impacts on the global environment affecting a wide array of ecosystem functions and services. These impacts can directly impact the land in a specific location and its productivity, or indirectly impact on broader resources and the environmental baseline. Such impacts have consequences for global development including impacting upon food security, human health, water availability and our ability to adapt to climate change. In this study we classify the impacts as direct/on-site impacts (any changes in soil functions experienced locally) and indirect/off-site impacts (those affecting other media, ecosystems and human populations more or less remote from the degraded soil, including, for example: changes in forest health; food productivity, climate change; or water stress), which are further discussed in the following sub-sections. 2.4.1 Direct (On-Site) Effects Some on-site impacts that have been described in the literature are presented in Table 3 for the different land use degradation processes. Table 3: Overview of direct impacts of land degradation processes (EEA, 2003; European Commission, 2006; Görlach et al., 2004; McDonagh et al., 2006) Degradation Process Direct impacts Soil erosion • Loss of soil • Changes in crop production • Reduction of the water holding capacity of the soil (which might result in floods and landslides) • Damage to infrastructures due to excessive sediment load • Restrictions on land use hindering future redevelopment and reducing the area of productive and valuable soil available for other activities • Land value depreciation Decline OM • Reduction in soil fertility (due to changes in the soil structure, the water retention capacity and the nutrient reserve) • A decline in OM leads directly to a loss of biological activity and biological • Diversity of soil. This in turn can affect the soil’s capacity to absorb pollutants, and therefore, soil may became more prone to leaching, affecting ground and surface water quality • Reduced water infiltration due to changes in soil structure, hence • higher flood risk • Increased erosion Sealing • Changing water flow patterns, increasing a run-off of water and eventually resulting in a higher risk of floods • Impact on water quality: run-off water from housing and traffic areas is normally unfiltered and may be contaminated with harmful chemicals • Disruption of gas, nutrients, and energy fluxes Contamination • Reduction of the buffering and substance conversion capacities of soil • Damage to soil biodiversity (uptake of contaminants by soil biota and plants) • Land value depreciation • Loss of soil fertility due to disrupted nutrient cycles Salinisation • Negative impact in the agricultural yield. For example, it has been estimated that in certain Central Asian countries, salinisation reduced cotton yields from 280 to 230 tonnes/km2 (EEA, 2003) • Reduced water infiltration and retention resulting in increased water run-off • Land value depreciation • Loss of soil biodiversity Landslides • Damage to property and infrastructure • Loss of fertile soil • Contamination of soil due to damage to infrastructure such as pipelines and storage facilities • Land value depreciation Compaction • Loss of soil fertility due to changes in soil structure, i.e. due to • reduced oxygen and water supply to plant roots • Reduced water infiltration and retention resulting in increased water run-off • Higher erosion susceptibility • Changes in the quantity and quality of biochemical and microbiological activity in the soil, which results in a reduced biological activity. This affects organic matter development and soil biodiversity and, as a result, soil productivity. • Land value depreciation Loss of biodiversity • Changes in soil structure by affecting the stabilisation of organo-mineral complex • Reduced food web functioning and consequently crop yield losses • Reduced soil formation • Reduced nutrient cycling and nitrogen fixation, which in turn affects soil fertility • Reduced resilience of the soil to endure pressures • Reduced recycling of organic waste/litter • Reduced water infiltration rate and water holding capacity • Negative impacts on biodiversity outside of soil • Impaired degradation of pollutants (important for e.g. clean ground water) • Reduced biological control of agricultural and forestry pests 2.4.2 Indirect (Off-Site) Effects Impact on Climate Change Some recent studies show that land use and cover have an important role as a climate forcing effect and demonstrates the importance of including land cover change in future climate change scenarios. For example, estimates of historical contributions of agriculture to atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), the amounts and rates of carbon lost as a consequence of deforestation and conversion of land to agriculture and other soil-vegetation-atmosphere carbon fluxes, all suggest that land degradation has had a very significant impact, through raising atmospheric CO2 concentrations, on climate. Land degradation contributes to climate change through two main processes: production of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and changes in temperature and precipitation through, for example, changes in land cover or direct contribution of dust to the atmosphere. There are also important feed-back loops operating between climate change, land, vegetation and land degradation, particularly in dry lands, where climate warming and droughts may promote desertification, further soil erosion, dust storms and changes in albedo (McDonagh et al. 2006). Both the direct and the in direct impacts of land degradation are obtainable in Buruku Local Government Area of Benue State and have resulted to the neglect of land that would have been used for farming activities to a flooded area with loss of nutrients in the land. Production of GHGs Soil is a major store of carbon. Global terrestrial carbon stocks amount to between 2,221 and 2,477 , depending on which estimate is used. Of this, 1,567 are held in the soil and 657 are held in plants (IPCC, 2001). CO2 is released when vegetation is cleared and burned and when SOM is mineralised. It takes place when the dynamic equilibrium between SOM breakdown and replenishment is disturbed (under agriculture, tillage and other practices will promote further SOM decomposition). When this happens, SOM breakdown exceeds replenishment and there is a net loss of CO2 from the soil (McDonagh et al. 2006). For example, it has been estimated that land-use change activities (total) were responsible for emissions of 2.0-2.2 Pg C/yr in the 1980s and 1990s while the release of carbon due to tropical deforestation amounted to 1-2 Pg C/yr during the 1990s (15-35% of annual fossil fuel emissions) (Houghton, 2005). Even modest changes in SOM, may have an appreciable effect on the content of atmospheric carbon. Most of the contribution to atmospheric CO2 made by the soil is associated with the conversion of land to agriculture. Soil contamination can, on the other hand, promote the removal of great amounts of nitrogen from the soil back into the atmosphere as nitrous oxide through the denitrification process than would occur naturally. Nitrous oxide, as one of the greenhouse gases, consequently influences the climate change process. Compaction can result in poor aeration of soil, as mentioned before, which in turn, may cause a loss of soil nitrogen and emissions of GHGs through denitrification in anaerobic sites. On the other hand, carbon sequestration in agricultural soils achieved by some land management practices has a potential to contribute to climate change mitigation. Nevertheless, the effect of soil management practice on carbon sequestration varies with many factors such as soil texture, cropping systems, time, location and climate/soil feedbacks. Some sources estimate this to be around 2 Pg of carbon annually. As part of the EU Climate Change Programme, the potential of soils for carbon sequestration was estimated to be equivalent to 1.5-1.7% of the EU’s anthropogenic CO2 emissions during the first commitment period of the Kyoto protocol (European Commission, 2002). Certain land degradation processes, such as the loss of biodiversity, can result in a loss of carbon sequestration potential. Changes in Temperature and Precipitation Deforestation and conversion of land to pasture or cropland can impact on other atmospheric components leading to consequences for the local, regional and global climate. Indeed, land degradation can also significantly affect climate due to land surface changes that impact on surface energy budgets (e.g. by increasing albedo) or affect surface evapotranspiration. There are indications that dust storms have relatively minor but increasing impacts in climate change, including absorption and scattering of solar radiation affecting air temperatures; influence on marine primary productivity; promotion of ocean cooling; modification of rainfall amounts through effects on convectional activity and cloud formation. Dust storms have always existed as natural phenomena but their increased frequency and severity is one of the manifestations of land degradation, particularly in drylands (McDonagh et al. 2006). Finally, it is important to highlight that there is a strong relation between the regional and the global climate, thus impacts of land degradation on the regional climate might have in the long term consequences at the global scale. For example, the rainforests of the Amazon play a crucial role in regulating the general circulation of the atmosphere. As deforestation and land degradation become more extensive, the resulting reductions in evapotranspiration and atmospheric heating may weaken moisture recycling and deep convection in the atmosphere over the Amazon, with major repercussions for South American climate (Foley et al. 2007). Changes in the Water Balance Soil plays an integral part in the regulation of the water cycle and therefore, changes in the soil conditions and land cover can have important impacts in the water balance. As indicated in the previous section, land degradation processes, and untimely desertification, can have an important impact on local, regional and global climate, which in turn can result in changes in the water balance (e.g. evapotranspiration, precipitation, etc.). For example, soil moisture levels determine the portion of energy that is used in evaporation and transpiration processes. Besides the impacts on climate, land degradation processes can affect infiltration and soil retention capacity of soils, which are related to surface run-off and groundwater sources recharge. For example, the increase impervious materials (soil sealing), mainly in urban areas, may have a great impact on surrounding soils by changing water flow patterns, reducing groundwater recharge (reduce soil water Infiltration) and increasing a run-off of water and eventually resulting in a higher risk of floods. Compaction could result in reduced infiltration of rainwater, lower recharge of groundwater aquifers, and hence a less regular flow of both groundwater and surface streams. Salinisation and decline of SOM can have similar effects on infiltration (e.g. SOM decline changes soil structure, which can affect water infiltration). Erosion, on the other hand, lowers the water-holding capacity of the soil, which in turn can lead to an increased occurrence of floods and landslides. Hence preventive and remedial actions to combat soil degradation will lead to improved water quality and less flood events. This seems to be an issue of great relevance, particularly in the context of increasingly frequent water scarcity conditions. Nevertheless, research on the relation between land degradation and changes in the water balance seems to be still scarce. Food Production and Safety Land degradation can impact both directly and indirectly and in many ways food security, which is influenced by food production, but also its distribution and accessibility. The key soil characteristics that affect yield are nutrient content, water holding capacity, organic matter content, soil reaction (acidity), top soil depth, salinity, and soil bio mass. Processes affecting such characteristics can potentially reduce crops yield, thus food production. Some authors claim that the impacts on productivity are highly site-specific and some work has indeed shown that the sensitivity and resilience exhibited by a soil are strong determinants of the impact of degradation on productivity (McDonagh, 2006). In any case, land degradation can threaten the food security of people in fragile environments, particularly those whose livelihoods rely largely on agricultural activities. In fact, the evidence compiled by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), suggests that soil degradation has already had significant impacts on the productivity of about 16% of the globe's agricultural land (Scherr, 1999). Soil erosion and nutrient depletion, or a combination of both, caused (directly) by inappropriate land management, are often the main causes of decline in food production. Erosion can indeed impact on crop production due to a decrease in plant rooting depth and disruption of nutrient cycles. For example, the estimated range of losses through soil degradation for two important crops is shown in Table 6. On plot and field scales, erosion can cause yield reductions of 30 to 90% in some root-restrictive shallow lands of West Africa. Yield reductions of 20 to 40% have been measured for row crops in Ohio and elsewhere in Midwest USA. Crop yield losses in 1989 due to past erosion ranged from 2 to 40%, with a mean of 6.2% for Sub- Saharan Africa (8.2% for all Africa). In the absence of erosion, 3.6 million tons more of cereal (8.2 million for the continent), 6.5 million tons more of roots and tubers (9.2 million), and 0.4 million tons more of pulses (0.6 million) would have been produced in 1989 (Eswaran et al., 2001). Biodiversity Alteration of soil processes leads to changes in the functioning of ecosystems, and many environmental problems which become apparent in other media actually originate within the soil (EEA, 2000). Disruption to ecosystem functions inevitably diminishes the diversity of above- and below-ground biodiversity. The potential impacts of deforestation on above-ground biodiversity are especially large and well documented. Impacts of other forms of land degradation on biodiversity are less clear, particularly regarding the effects on below-ground biodiversity, likely to be the most severe. For example, erosion, sealing, overgrazing, and silting of low-lands can also result in loss, modification, and fragmentation of habitats, which is one of the major threats faced by threatened birds, amphibians, and mammals (IUCN, 2004) Contamination represents a great threat to soil biodiversity, mostly by causing soil acidification and nitrogen depositions. Acidification favours the leaching of nutrients and the release of toxic metals, which may reduce soil fertility and damage beneficial soil microorganisms, slowing down biological activity (Montanarella, 2006). Ammonia and other nitrogen deposition (resulting from emissions from agriculture, traffic and industry) cause the unwanted enrichment of soils and subsequent decline of biodiversity of forests and of high nature value pastures. In some European forests the nitrogen input already reaches such extreme values as 60 kg N per hectare per year (compared to pre-industrial deposition which was below 5 kg) (Montanarella, 2006). The largest threat to soil biodiversity and ecosystem services is the cumulative effect of stress on stress, which is prominent in heavily modified landscapes: persistent stresses, like that of heavy metals, combined with periodic short term stresses, such as drought, strongly reduce the stability and resilience of soil ecosystem services (Griffiths, 2000). In turn, damage to soil biodiversity (e.g. uptake of contaminants by soil biota and plants) renders the soil more vulnerable to soil degradation processes. Soil organisms create structural porosity in soils, by forming aggregates of variable size and resistance. The rate at which water moves, is detoxified and stored, is determined in large part by soil organisms, yet, the contribution of soil invertebrates to water storage and detoxification is rarely acknowledged. Furthermore, soil invertebrates bind soil particles together. These soil aggregates are more resistant to erosion than individual soil particles, thus contributing to the reduction of surface run-off and of water erosion, while increasing soil moisture for plant growth. Currently, no figures are available on the amounts of water infiltrated and stored in soils as a consequence of invertebrate activity, although these effects are well documented and indicators exist (Lavelle, 2006). Human Health and Development Many of the possible impacts of land degradation on human health are indirect, mediated through its impacts on climate, biodiversity, hydrological systems, etc. Others are direct impacts including, for example, the health problems resulting from erosion (mainly air erosion) due to dust and particles in the air (dust particles have been shown to cause a wide range of respiratory disorders including chronic bronchitis and lower respiratory illness) or experienced by people living on and in the surroundings of a contaminated site. A Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) synthesis on ecosystems and human health from 2005 is perhaps the most comprehensive assessment on the linkage between human health and ecosystem services (MA, 2005). Research also illustrates the role that land degradation, particularly in agricultural areas, can play in migration and demographic patterns. For example, Berry et al. (2003) show that the degradation of agricultural lands in Mexico can contribute directly to cross-border migration via its impacts on household incomes in the agricultural sector. The data collected in this study demonstrate that high levels of environmental stress and high population pressures at the municipal level are associated with poverty. As poverty is a major determinant of migration, environmental degradation may be seen to influence migration through its impacts on poverty in the agricultural sector. The results of the analysis show a systematic inverse relation between environmental stress variables and income levels. At the municipal level, high levels of environmental stress are highly associated with poverty, which in turn, is highly correlative with migration. Since much of the land degradation in Mexico is the result of human factors, particularly unsustainable land management practices, it follows that programs to improve these practices will likely have a positive impact on stabilising agricultural incomes, reducing the acceleration of poverty rates, and, by extension, reducing the incidence of cross-border migration (Berry et al, 2003). Effect of Land Degradation on Farming Land degradation has multiple and complex effect on farming activities. These effects can directly affect farming activities such as poor productivity and farm yields, therefore, affecting food security, human health, water availability and our ability to adapt to climate change. The effect of land degradation on farming could be classified in two ways; the direct/on-site effects which include any changes in soil functions experienced locally and the indirect/off-site effects which include those affecting other media, ecosystem and human population more or less remote from the degraded soil, including changes in forest health, food productivity, climate change or water stress. In Buruku Local Government Area of Benue State, the effect of land degradation ranges from loss of soil, changes in crop production, reduction of water holding capacity of soil, reduction in soil fertility, the decline in OM, land value depreciation, changing water flow pattern, loss of soil fertility, contamination of soil down to loss of biodiversity has disrupted farming activities and has subsequently lead to a significant reduction in the quality and quantity of farm yield within Buruku Local Government Area of Benue State. Strategies for Reducing the Effects of Land Degradation on Farming The alarming effect of land degradation calls for all and sundry to create possible ways of controlling land degradation processes at its early or initial stage as it affects land use in terms of farming activities, food security as well as the population in term of food consumption. The following Government Laws and Policies are presented in this work would help reduce the effect of land degradation on farming in Buruku Local Government Area of Benue State and beyond. Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999) The constitution, as the national legal order, recognizes the importance of improving and protecting the environment and makes provision for it. Relevant sections are: Section 20 makes it an objective of the Nigerian State to improve and protect the air, land, water, forest and wildlife of Nigeria. Section 12 establishes, though impliedly, that international treaties (including environmental treaties) ratified by the National Assembly should be implemented as law in Nigeria. Section 33 and 34 which guarantee fundamental human rights to life and human dignity respectively, have also being argued to be linked to the need for a healthy and safe environment to give these rights effect. National Environmental Standards and Regulation Enforcement Agency (NESREA) Act 2007 Administered by the Ministry of Environment, the National Environment Standards and Regulation Enforcement Agency (NESREA) Act of 2007 replaced the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) Act. It is the embodiment of laws and regulations focused on the protection and sustainable development of the environment and its natural resources. The following sections are worth noting:- Section 7 provides authority to ensure compliance with environmental laws, local and international, on environmental sanitation and pollution prevention and control through monitory and regulatory measures. Section 8 (1)(K) empowers the Agency to make and review regulations on air and water quality, effluent limitations, control of harmful substances and other forms of environmental pollution and sanitation. Section 27 prohibits, without lawful authority, the discharge of hazardous substances into the environment. This offence is punishable under this section, with a fine not exceeding, N1,000,000 (One Million Naira) and an imprisonment term of 5 years. In the case of a company, there is an additional fine of N50,000, for every day the offence persists. Regulations (Under NESREA) National Effluent Limitation Regulations. Section 1 (1) requires industry facilities to have anti-pollution equipment for the treatment of effluent. Section 3 (2) requires a submission to the agency of a composition of the industry’s treated effluents. National Environment Protection (Pollution Abatement in Industries and Facilities producing Waste) Regulations (1991). Section 1 Prohibits the release of hazardous substances into the air, land or water of Nigeria beyond approved limits set by the Agency. Section 4 and 5 requires industries to report a discharge if it occurs and to submit a comprehensive list of chemicals used for production to the Agency. Federal Solid and Hazardous Waste Management Regulations (1991). Section 1 makes it an obligation for industries to identify solid hazardous wastes which are dangerous to public health and the environment and to research into the possibility of their recycling. Section 20 makes notification of any discharge to the Agency mandatory. Section 108 stipulates penalties for contravening any regulation. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Act. CAP E12, LFN 2004. An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the potential impacts whether positive or negative, of a proposed project on the natural environment: The E.I.A Act, as it is informally called, deals with the considerations of environmental impact in respect of public and private projects. Sections relevant to environmental emergency prevention under the EIA include:- Section 2 (1) requires an assessment of public or private projects likely to have a significant (negative) impact on the environment. Section 2 (4) requires an application in writing to the Agency before embarking on projects for their environmental assessment to determine approval. Section 13 establishes cases where an EIA is required and Section 60 creates a legal liability for contravention of any provision. The Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Act CAP N138, LFN 2004 The Urban and Regional Planning Act is aimed at overseeing a realistic, purposeful planning of the country to avoid overcrowding and poor environmental conditions. In this regard, the following sections become instructive:- Section 30 (3) requires a building plan to be drawn by a registered architect or town planner. Section 39 (7) establishes that an application for land development would be rejected if such development would harm the environment or constitute a nuisance to the community. Section 59 makes it an offence to disobey a stop-work order. The punishment under this section, is a fine not exceeding N10,000 (Ten thousand naira) and in the case of a company, a fine not exceeding N50, 000. Section 72 provides for the preservation and planting of trees for environmental conservation. Land Use Act: CAP 202, LFN 2004 The Land Use Act places the ownership, management and control of land in each state of the federation in the Governor. Land is therefore allocated with his authority for commercial, agricultural and other purposes. Harmful Waste (Special Criminal Provisions) Act: CAP H, LFN 2004 The Harmful Waste Act prohibits, without lawful authority, the carrying, dumping or depositing of harmful waste in the air, land or waters of Nigeria. The following sections are notable: Section 6 provides for a punishment of life imprisonment for offenders as well as the forfeiture of land or anything used to commit the offence. Section 7 makes provision for the punishment accordingly, of any conniving, consenting or negligent officer where the offence is committed by a company. Section 12 defines the civil liability of any offender. He would be liable to persons who have suffered injury as a result of his offending act. Exclusive Economic Zone Act, CAP E11, LFN 2004. The Exclusive Economic Zone Act makes it illegal to explore or exploit natural resources within the Exclusive zone without lawful authority. The Federal Government regulates the activities of the Exclusive Zone. Nigerian Mining Corporation Act. CAP N120, LFN 2004 This Act establishes the Nigerian Mining Corporation. It has authority to engage in mining refining activities and to construct and maintain roads, dams, reservoirs, etc. In particular: Section 16 creates a civil liability on the corporation for the physical or economic damage suffered by any person as a result of its activities. River Basins Development Authority Act, CAP R9, LFN 2004 The River Basins Development Authority is concerned with the development of water resources for domestic, industrial and other uses, and the control of floods and erosion. Agriculture (Control of Importation) Act, CAP A93, LFN 2004 The Agriculture Act and its Plant (Control of Importation) Regulations are concerned with the control of the spread of plant diseases and pests. Worth noting is: Section 6 which allows authorized officers to take emergency control measures, and provides for the recovery of costs and expenses incurred by the officers in controlling the situation. Water Resources Act, CAP W2, LFN 2004 The Water Resources Act is targeted at developing and improving the quantity and quality of water resources. The following sections are pertinent: Section 5 and 6 provides authority to make pollution prevention plans and regulations for the protection of fisheries, flora and fauna. Section 18 makes offenders liable, under this Act, to be punished with a fine not exceeding N2000 or an imprisonment term of six months. He would also pay an additional fine of Nl00 for everyday the offence continues. Other legislation: Environmental Sanitation Law: This is a law of Lagos State focused on environmental sanitation and protection. It punishes in varying degrees acts like street obstruction, failure to clean sidewalks, cover refuse bins or dispose wastes properly. Environmental Pollution Control Law Section 12 of this law under the Laws of Lagos State makes it an offence to cause or permit a discharge of raw untreated human waste into any public drain, water course or onto any land or water. This offence is punishable with a fine not exceeding N100, 000 (One hundred thousand naira) and in the case of a company, a fine not exceeding N500, 000. Criminal Code: The Criminal Code contains provisions for the prevention of public health hazards and for environmental protection. Hence: Sections 245-248 deal with offences ranging from water fouling, to the use of noxious substances. CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter describes the method of data collection which would be employed in handling the data as well as the analytical techniques that are to be applied. These include the study population, sources of data, sampling frame, instrument of data collection and analytical techniques. 3.2 THE STUDY POPULATION All degraded land constitutes the study population. The study population is limited to human population living within the five rural distrcts under study namely; Tombo, Mbagen, Kusur, Shorov and Etulo. However, adults are preferred which constitutes population. But since it became difficult to access the degree and extent of degradation on various crops of land, all individual land users will be drawn from the population sample. 3.3 DATA NEEDS The actual data needed for this research work is primary data. This primary data refers to all information obtained directly from the field survey. The primary data required for this research include human imprints on the landscape, erosion data, farm sizes, crop yield and the nature of cultivation. Also the data will capture the causes, effects, typologies of land degradation as well as proffering possible ways of minimizing land degradation. 3.4 SOURCES OF DATA The researcher employed both the secondary and primary sources of data in this study. The choice of these sources of data is based on the fact that the study aims at eliciting quantitative and qualitative information. Secondary source of data is derived from articles, journals, books and other documented materials while the primary source is derived through the administration of questionnaires and the information were directly related to the research problems and objectives. The researcher would be there present to see things for herself. 3.5 INSTRUSMENT OF DATA COLLECTION The instrument of data collection was the use of observation method, oral interview with farmers and the use of questionnaires to compliment the study. 3.5.1 OBSERVATION This is personal observation on different agricultural practices and the degradation activities that occur on farm sites. 3.5.2 ORAL INTERVIEW Information will also be gathered from farmers on personal interaction to avoid difficulties which may arise in answering questionnaires. 3.5.3 QUESTIONNAIRE This is the major instrument for data collection for this research. Questions were carefully designed and administered to the respondents to provide the needed information. Questions will be formulated to capture data on human imprints on landscape such as human environment relationship, nature of land use and their effects on the environment. Also, the causes and the typologies of land degradation will be captured to complement the study. 3.6 SAMPLING FRAME In order to enhance data collection of the entire study area, three districts have been chosen at random through casting of lot out of the five existing rural districts of the Local Government Area. The three districts chosen comprises of nine council wards in which two council wards were chosen using the systematic random sampling. The districts and their council wards are shown in the table below: TABLE 4: SHOWING THE CHOSEN DISTRICTS AND COUNCIL WARDS. DISTRICT NUMBER OF COUNCIL WARD NAMES OF COUNCIL WARD SELECTED Tombo 2 Mbaya, Mbaatikyaa Mbagem 2 Mbatyough, Mbaade Kusur 2 Mbakyaan, Mbagana Total 6 Source: Field Survey, 2013. 3.7 SAMPLE SIZE The sampling technique employed in this research is the systematic random sampling method. The respondent in the study are both males and females. This is employed to obtain actual sampling population from the chosen council wards of Tombo, Mbagem and Kusur. A total of 120 adults males and females are required to answer the questionnaire. 3.8 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS The method of analysis was carried out base on the information collected from the field on administration of questionnaire. Tables will be used in the analysis to transfer the nature of the data collected into numeric codes to give the correct picture of the information obtained from the variables in the study area, also interpretation offered to make more comprehensive analysis. Simple percentage will be used to provide answers to the researchable questions presented in the chapter one of this work. CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the presentation and analysis of data gathered in the course of the study. Hence, it shall examine the impact of land degradation on farmer in Buruku local government. These impacts will be assessed by means of data collected in order to confirm the research questions earlier posed in the chapter one of this work. The outcome will be used in drawing up conclusion and recommendation of the research work. 4.2 Age Distribution of Respondents Table 5: Age distribution of respondents. Age No of Respondent Percentage (%) 20-30 34 28.3 31-40 41 34.2 41-50 27 22.5 51+ 18 15 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013. The data in table 5 indicates that (41 representing 34.2%) of the respondents were between the ages of 31-40 years. This group of farmers is more active in utilizing and making decisions on land usage in the area. While minorities (34 representing 28.3%) of the respondents were the youths who are farmers but merely provide labour services and assistance on land issues in the area. A minority (27 representing 22.5%) of the respondents were between the ages of 41-50 years who had vase knowledge of the area and had been exploring the land for years. A minority (18 representing 15%) of the respondent was between the ages of 51 and above and they had better knowledge of the terrain and were useful for the research. 4.3 Distribution of Respondents by Qualification Table 6: Respondents distribution by qualification Qualification No of Respondents Percentage (%) Primary 2 1.7 Secondary 90 75 Tertiary 5 4.2 Never Attended 3 2.5 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The above table shows that (90 representing 75%) of the study population had secondary education while lumbering accounts for (5 representing 4.5%) accounted for respondents that had tertiary education and can contribute significantly to this study. (3 representing 2.5%) accounted for respondents that never attended or had no educational qualification and (2 representing 1.7%) was responsible for respondents with primary educational qualification in the area under study. 4.4 Distribution of Respondents by Occupation Table 7: Respondents distribution by occupation Occupation No of Respondents Percentage (%) Farming 52 43.3 Fishermen 6 5 Civil Servant 32 26.7 Trading 30 25 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 Based on the data obtained from the respondents, (52 representing 43.3%) accounted for farmers while (32 representing 26.7%) of the respondents were civil servants. Also, (30 representing 25%) of the respondents accounted for traders who were part of the study and fishermen who were in the area accounted for (6 representing 5%) that complimented the study. This analysis shows that, a majority of (43.3%) constituted respondents that were affected the most by land degradation. 4.5 Ways in which Land Degradation Affects Farming Table 8: Ways by which land degradation affects farming Ways by which Land degradation affects farming activities No of Respondents Percentage (%) Loss of top soil 30 25 Reduction in water holding capacity 20 17 Reduction in soil fertility and growth 30 25 Loss of soil nutrients 30 25 Contamination of soil 10 8 Total 120 100 Source: Field survey, 2013 The above table indicates that a majority of 30 (representing 25%) of the respondents were of the view that loss of top soil, reduction in soil fertility and growth, loss of soil nutrients were the ways in which land degradation affects farming activities in Buruku local government. While a minority of 20 (representing 17%) attested for respondents that were of the view that reduction in the water holding capacity of the soil affected farming activities and as well resulted to shifting cultivation in the area. A minority of 10 (representing 8%) of the respondents were of the view that contamination of soil also affected farming activities in the affected areas in Buruku local government area of Benue State. The implication of this data is that farming activities is disrupted by land degradation. 4.6 Types of Land Degradation Table 9: Typologies of Land degradation Types of Land degradation No of Respondents Percentage (%) Water Erosion 40 33 Wind Erosion 10 8 Chemical Degradation 25 21 Physical Degradation 45 38 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The above table indicates that a majority of 45 (representing 38%) of respondent’s responses were of the view that physical degradation are dominates other typologies of land degradation. In the same vain a majority of 40 (representing 33%) of the respondents were of the view that water erosion were also predominantly found in Buruku local government area. A minority of 25(representing 21%) of the respondents were of the view that chemical erosion were found in most affected clans in Buruku. And a minority of 10(representing 8%) of the respondents were of the view that wind erosion affected some parts of the clans under study. 4.7 Causes of Land degradation Table 10: Responses on the causes of land degradation Causes of Land degradation No of Respondents Percentage (%) Demographic Dynamics 25 21 Urbanization 10 8 Agricultural Practices 25 21 Industry/ Energy Activities 10 8 Climate Changes 20 17 Excessive Water Overflow 30 25 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The above table indicates that a majority of 30 (representing 25%) of the respondents were of the view that excessive water flow causes land degradation in Buruku, while a majority of 25 (representing 21) attested for demographic dynamics and agricultural practices causes land degradation in Buruku. A minority of 20 (representing 17%) accounted for climate changes, while a minority of 10 (representing 8%) of the respondents attested for industrial/energy causes land degradation as soil is contaminated in one way or the other. 4.8 Signs of Land Degradation Table 11: Signs of land degradation Signs of Land degradation No of Respondents Percentage (%) Low crop yield 30 25 Slow growth of crops 30 25 Loss of top soil 15 13 Contamination of soil 5 4 Scanty vegetation on affected soil or land 40 33 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The above table indicates that a majority of 40 (representing 33%) of the respondents were of the view that scanty vegetation on soil remains a symptom of degradation of land. A majority of 30 (representing 25%) of the respondents were of the view that low crop yield and slow growth of crops are other symptoms of degradation. A minority of 15 (representing 13%) of the respondents were of the view that loss of top soil is a symptom of land degradation. A minority of 5 (representing 4%) of the respondents were of the view that contamination of soil is a symptom of land degradation. 4.9 Effect of Land Degradation on Farming Table 12: Effects of land degradation on farming Effects of Land degradation No of Respondents Percentage (%) Poor productivity/farm yield 20 17 Loss of top soil 15 13 Reduction in soil fertility 15 13 Decline in Organic Matter (OM) 10 8 Land depreciation 10 8 Changing water flow pattern 10 8 Reduction in water holding capacity 10 8 Contamination of soil 20 17 Loss of soil biodiversity 10 8 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The above table indicates that a majority of 20 (representing 17%) of the respondents were of the view that poor productivity/farm yield and contamination of soil were effects of land degradation commonly found in Buruku. While a minority of 15 (representing 13%) of respondents were of the view that loss of top soil and reduction in soil fertility were effects of land degradation also found in Buruku. 10 (representing 8%) attested for decline in organic matter (OM), land depreciation, changing water flow pattern, reduction in water holding capacity and loss of biodiversity. 4.10 Strategies of Reducing Land Degradation Table 13: Strategies of reducing land degradation Strategies of Reducing Land degradation No of Respondents Percentage (%) Enacting laws that would protect our lands from been polluted or devalued 60 50 Distinction should be made on Industrial land from farm land. 40 33 Others 20 17 Total 120 100 Source Field, Survey 2013 The above table indicates that a majority of 60 (representing 50%) of the respondents were of the view that enacting laws that would protect our lands from been polluted or devalued will be controlled. A majority of 40 (representing 33%) of the respondents were of the view that a distinction of proposed industry should be made from farmland so as to avoid chemical pollution to the environment or land. 20 (representing 17%) of the respondents were of the view that other strategies like embarking on Environmental Impact Assessment should be carried out before situating an industry and the discouraging activities that allows our land to be depreciated in any way. 4.11 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The study clearly shows that land degradation has significant impact as well as effects on farm lands in Buruku local government area of Benue State. In the course of the study it was discovered that majority of the study population were between the ages of 31-40 and constituted those that were knowledgeable of their terrain. The study population had a significant number that had attained secondary education and they were mostly farmers. From the findings, it was also discovered that land degradation had ways of affecting farming activities as depicted in table 8. The typologies of land degradation were not left out as table 9 captured data containing the typologies of land degradation in Buruku. Table 10 captured information on the causes of land degradation in Buruku while table 11 presented information of the signs of land degradation in Buruku. From the findings, table 12 presented the effects of land degradation on farming in Buruku local government area. While table 13 presented information on the possible ways land degradation can be managed or reduced to a level of tolerance. CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter forms the concluding part of this study. A brief summary of this work will be conducted, followed by recommendations that will reduce the impact of land degradation to a very minimal level. The essence of this research work was to assess the impact of land degradation on farmers. The chapter one of this work gave a brief introduction of land degradation, problems were stated, researchable questions were asked, aims and objectives were presented, hypothesis were formulated and the scope of thee study was also presented. The chapter two of this work presented the review concept, types, causes and effects of land degradation on farming. The chapter three of this work made use of random sampling method was adopted; questionnaires for the inhabitants were administered. The research questions were analyzed in relation to certain questions in the questionnaires using simple percentage. The chapter four of this work presented data collected and analyzed which were in line with the research questions earlier presented. The chapter five of this work will summarize the whole work which gives account to the entire research work and the conclusion which will present the general impression of the research, and lastly recommendation will be drawn to proffer solutions and suggestions on how the impact and effects of land degradation on how it affects farming activities could be minimized to a very minimal level. 5.2 SUMMARY From the study, it was found that land degradation has negative effects on farming activities which include Poor productivity/farm yield, Loss of top soil, Reduction in soil fertility, Decline in Organic Matter (OM), Land depreciation, Changing water flow pattern, Reduction in water holding capacity, Contamination of soil, loss of biodiversity. From the study, it was also found that the causes of land degradation ranges from Demographic Dynamics, Urbanization, Agricultural Practices, Industry/ Energy Activities, Climate Changes, Excessive Water Overflow. 5.3 CONCLUSION This study is aimed at assess the impact of land degradation on farming with specific emphasis on Buruku local government area of Benue State. This study reveals that the impact of land degradation in Buruku local government if not minimized, the inhabitant will have difficulty in producing much farm product as their lands are devalued as a result of degradation evident in the Buruku local government area of Benue State. Based of the findings, the researcher has come to conclusion that land degradation can be minimized based on our activities we engage that could make lands to devalue. 5.4 RECOMMENDATION In the study, the researcher has assess and examine the impact of land degradation on farmer. The following recommendations are hereby offered to help control land degradation in Buruku local government area of Benue State. • To mobilize the scientific community to mount an integrated programme for methods, standards, data collection, and research networks for assessment and monitoring of soil and land degradation. • To develop land use models that incorporate both natural and human-induced factors that contribute to land degradation and that could be used for land use planning and management. • To develop information systems that link environmental monitoring, accounting, and impact assessment to land degradation. • To help develop policies that encourage sustainable land use and management and assist in the greater use of land resource information for sustainable agriculture. • To develop economic instruments for the assessment of land degradation and encourage the sustainable use of land resources. • To rationalize the wide range of terminology and definitions with different meanings among different disciplines associated with land degradation. • To standardize methods of assessment of the extent of land degradation. • To develop non-uniform criteria for assessing the severity of land degradation. • To overcome the difficulty in evaluating the on-farm economic impact of land degradation on productivity. Questionnaire SECTION A: PERSONAL DATA 1. Age range 20-30 [ ] 31-40 [ ] 41-50 [ ] 51+ [ ] 2. Educational qualification a) Primary [ ] b) Secondary [ ] c) Tertiary [ ] d) Never Attended [ ] 3. Occupation of Respondent………………………………………………………………… SECTION B: LAND DEGRADATION AND FARMING ACTIVITIES 1. Does land degradation affect farming activities? Yes [ ] No [ ] 2. How does land degradation affect farming activities? a) ……………………………………………………………………………… b) ……………………………………………………………………………… c) ……………………………………………………………………………… 3. What are the types of land degradation prevalent in Buruku L.G.A? a) ……………………………………………………………………………… b) ……………………………………………………………………………… c) ……………………………………………………………………………… d) ……………………………………………………………………………… e) ……………………………………………………………………………… 4. What are the possible causes of land degradation in your area? a) ……………………………………………………………………………… b) ……………………………………………………………………………… c) ……………………………………………………………………………… d) ……………………………………………………………………………… e) ……………………………………………………………………………… 5. What are the signs of land degradation? a) ……………………………………………………………………………… b) ……………………………………………………………………………… c) ……………………………………………………………………………… d) ……………………………………………………………………………… 6. What are the effects of land degradation on farming activities in Buruku L.G.A? a) ……………………………………………………………………………… b) ……………………………………………………………………………… c) ……………………………………………………………………………… d) ……………………………………………………………………………… e) ……………………………………………………………………………… 7. What strategies should be employed to reduce land degradation within Buruku L.G.A? a) ……………………………………………………………………………… b) ……………………………………………………………………………… c) ……………………………………………………………………………… d) ……………………………………………………………………………… e) ……………………………………………………………………………… f) ……………………………………………………………………………… g) ……………………………………………………………………………… REFERENCES Berry L., Olson J., and Campbell D. (2003), Assessing the Extent Cost and Impact of Land Degradation at the National Level: Overview: Findings and Lessons Learned. Commissioned by Global Mechanism with support from the World Bank. pp. 203 EEA (European Environment Agency) (1995), Chapter 7: Soil, in: Europe’s Environment: the Dobris Assessment. p.p. 146- 171, EEA, Copenhagen EEA (European Environment Agency) (2000), Down to Earth: Soil Degradation and Sustainable Development in Europe. Environmental issue series No 16. EEA, Copenhagen EEA (European Environment Agency) (2003), Chapter 9: Soil Degradation in Europe’s Environment: the Third Assessment. p.p. 198-212, Copenhagen. Eswaran, H., R. Lal and P.F. Reich (2001), Land degradation: an overview. In: Bridges, E.M., I.D. Hannam, L.R. Oldeman, F.W.T. Pening de Vries, S.J. Scherr, and S. Sompatpanit (eds.). Responses to Land Degradation. Proc. 2nd. International Conference on Land Degradation and Desertification, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Oxford Press, New Delhi, India. European Commission (2002). “Towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection”, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM (2002) 179 final, 16.4.2002, Brussels.