The United Nations Organization
In the earliest times, wars existed between nations creating unfavourable human relations between nations, therefore, affecting social and economic relations. The League of Nations who were directly or indirectly affected by the wars in the likes of World War I &II respectively gave impetus for the need in drafting a charter for the institutionalization of what is today known to be the United Nations. The charter maintains that:
"We the peoples of the United Nations determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, and for these ends to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, and to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples, have resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish these aims. Accordingly, our respective Governments … have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations"(asdf, 2008).
The unification of these nations was to establish an organization that would oversee the activities of nations and to save the world from feature wars, reaffirm human right and the establishment of equal rights for all persons.
This paper seeks to examine the rationale behind the creation of the United Nations, its aims and objectives, the role it as played overtimes since its inception as a body charged with the responsibility of ensuring peace and co-operation between nations, to promote international co-operation and to achieve peace and security.
The name "United Nations", coined by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt, was first used in the "Declaration by United Nations" of 1 January 1942, during the Second World War, when representatives of 26 nations pledged their governments to continue fighting together against the Axis powers. States first established international organizations to cooperate on specific matters. The International Telecommunication Union was founded in 1865 as the International Telegraph Union, and the Universal Postal Union was established in 1874. Both are now United Nations specialized agencies. In 1899, the first International Peace Conference was held in The Hague to elaborate instruments for settling crises peacefully, preventing wars and codifying rules of warfare (asdf, 2008).
It adopted the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes and established the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which began work in 1902. The forerunner of the United Nations was the League of Nations, an organization conceived in similar circumstances during the First World War, and established in 1919 under the Treaty of Versailles "to promote international cooperation and to achieve peace and security." The International Labour Organization was also created under the Treaty of Versailles as an affiliated agency of the League. The League of Nations ceased its activities after failing to prevent the Second World War (asdf, 2008).
In 1945, representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on International Organization to draw up the United Nations Charter. Those delegates deliberated on the basis of proposals worked out by the representatives of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States at Dumbarton Oaks, United States, from August to October 1944. The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was not represented at the Conference, signed it later and became one of the original 51 member states (asdf, 2008).
The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and a majority of other signatories. United Nations Day
is celebrated on 24 October each year.
Purposes and principles
Asdf (2008) maintains that, the purposes
of the United Nations, as set forth in the Charter, are:
• To maintain international peace and security;
• To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples;
• To cooperate in solving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems and in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms;
• To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining these common
ends.
The United Nations acts in accordance with the following principles:
• It is based on the sovereign equality of all its members;
• All members are to fulfill in good faith their Charter obligations;
• They are to settle their international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering international peace and security and justice;
• They are to refrain from the threat or use of force against any other state;
• They are to give the United Nations every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the Charter;
• Nothing in the Charter is to authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters
which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state.
Membership
Membership of the United Nations is open to all peace-loving nations which accept the obligations of the Charter and are willing and able to carry out these obligations. The General Assembly admits new member states on the recommendation of the Security Council. The Charter provides for the suspension or expulsion of a member for violation of the principles of the Charter, but no such action has ever been taken (asdf, 2008).
Official languages
Under the Charter, the official languages of the United Nations are Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish. Arabic was later added as an official language of the General Assembly, the Security Council and the Economic and Social Council (asdf, 2008).
Structure of the Organization
The Charter established six principal organs of the United Nations: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat. The United Nations family, however, is much larger, encompassing 15 agencies and several programmes and bodies (asdf, 2008).
General Assembly
The General Assembly is the main deliberative organ. It is composed of representatives of all member states, each of which has one vote. Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority. Decisions on other questions are by simple majority (asdf, 2008).
Functions and powers
According to Asdf (2008), under the Charter, the functions and powers of the General Assembly include:
• To consider and make recommendations on the principles of cooperation in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the principles governing disarmament and arms regulation;
• To discuss any question relating to international peace and security and, except where a dispute or situation is being discussed by the Security Council, to make recommendations on it;
• To discuss and, with the same exception, make recommendations on any question within the scope of the Charter or affecting the powers and functions of any organ of the United Nations;
• To initiate studies and make recommendations to promote international political cooperation, the development and codification of international law, the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, and international collaboration in the economic, social, cultural, educational and health fields;
• To make recommendations for the peaceful settlement of any situation, regardless of origin, which might impair friendly relations among nations;
• To receive and consider reports from the Security Council and other United Nations organs;
• To consider and approve the United Nations budget and to apportion the contributions among members;
• To elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the members of the Economic and Social Council and additional members of the Trusteeship Council (when necessary); to elect jointly with the Security Council the Judges of the International Court of Justice; and, on the recommendation of the Security Council, to appoint the Secretary-General.
Sessions
According to asdf (2008), The General Assembly's regular session begins each year on Tuesday in the third week of September, counting from the first week that contains at least one working day. The election of the President of the Assembly, as well as its 21 Vice-Presidents and the Chairpersons of its six main committees, takes place at least three months before the start of the regular session. To ensure equitable geographical representation, the presidency of the Assembly rotates each year among five groups of states: African, Asian, Eastern European, Latin American and the Caribbean, and Western European and other states.
In addition, the Assembly may meet in special sessions at the request of the Security Council, of a majority of member states, or of one member if the majority of members concur. Emergency special sessions may be called within 24 hours of a request by the Security Council on the vote of any nine Council members, or by a majority of the United Nations members, or by one member if the majority of members concur.
At the beginning of each regular session, the Assembly holds a general debate, often addressed by heads of state and government, in which member states express their views on the most pressing international issues. Most questions are then discussed in its six Main Committees:
• First Committee (Disarmament and International Security);
• Second Committee (Economic and Financial);
• Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian and Cultural);
• Fourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization);
• Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary);
• Sixth Committee (Legal).
Some issues are considered directly in plenary meetings while others are allocated to one of the six Main Committees. Resolutions and decisions, including those recommended by the committees, are adopted in plenary meetings — usually before the recess of the regular session in December. They may be adopted with or without a vote.
The Assembly generally adopts its resolutions and decisions by a majority of members present and voting. Important questions, including recommendations on international peace and security, the election of members to some principal organs and budgetary matters, are decided by a two-thirds majority. Voting may be conducted as a recorded vote, a show of hands or a roll-call vote. While the decisions of the Assembly have no legally binding force for governments, they carry the weight of world opinion, as well as the moral authority of the world community (asdf, 2008).
The work of the United Nations year-round derives largely from the mandates given by the General Assembly — that is to say, the will of the majority of the members as expressed in resolutions and decisions adopted by the Assembly. That work is carried out: by committees and other bodies established by the Assembly to study and report on specific issues, such as disarmament, peacekeeping, development and human rights; In international conferences called for by the Assembly; and By the Secretariat of the United Nations — the Secretary-General and his staff of international civil servants.
Security Council
The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the Charter, for the maintenance of international peace and security. The Council has 15 members: five permanent — China, France, and the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States— and 10 members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. Each member has one vote. Decisions on procedural matters are made by an affirmative vote of at least 9 of the 15 members. Decisions on substantive matters require nine votes and the absence of a negative vote by any of the five permanent members (asdf, 2008).
All five permanent members have exercised the right of veto at one time or another. If a permanent member does not fully agree with a proposed resolution but does not wish to cast its veto, it may choose to abstain — thus allowing the resolution to be adopted if it obtains the required number of nine votes in favour. Under Article 25 of the Charter, all members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council. While other organs of the United Nations make recommendations to member states, the Council alone has the power to take decisions which member states are obligated under the Charter to implement (asdf, 2008).
Functions and powers
Asdf (2003) asserts that under the Charter, the functions and powers of the Security Council include the following:
• To maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles and purposes of the United Nations;
• To formulate plans for establishing a system to regulate armaments;
• To call upon the parties to a dispute to settle it by peaceful means;
• To investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction, and to recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the terms of settlement;
• To determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression and to
recommend what action should be taken;
• To call upon the parties concerned to comply with such provisional measures as it deems necessary or desirable to prevent an aggravation of the situation;
• To call on members of the United Nations to take measures not involving the use of armed force — such as sanctions — to give effect to the Council's decisions;
• To resort to or authorize the use of force to maintain or restore international peace and security;
• To encourage the peaceful settlement of local disputes through regional arrangements and to use such regional arrangements for enforcement action under its authority;
• To recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary General and, together with the Assembly, to elect the Judges of the International Court of Justice;
• To request the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on any legal question;
• To recommend to the General Assembly the admission of new members to the United Nations. The Security Council is so organized as to be able to function continuously, and a representative of each of its members must be present at all times at United Nations Headquarters.
When a complaint concerning a threat to peace is brought before it, the Council's first action is usually to recommend that the parties try to reach agreement by peaceful means. The Council may set forth principles for a peaceful settlement. In some cases, the Council itself undertakes investigation and mediation. It may dispatch a mission, appoint special envoys or request the Secretary-General to use his good offices. When a dispute leads to hostilities, the Council's first concern is to bring them to an end as soon as possible. The Council may issue ceasefire directives that can be instrumental in preventing an escalation of the conflict.
The Council may also dispatch military observers or a peacekeeping force to help reduce tensions, keep opposing forces apart, and create conditions of calm in which peaceful settlements may be sought. Under Chapter VII of the Charter, the Council may decide on enforcement measures, including economic sanctions, arms embargoes, financial sanctions, travel bans or collective military action.
The sanctions instrument is an important tool available to the Security Council in seeking to promote international peace and security. Each of the sanctions regimes currently in existence features "smart" or targeted sanctions — arms embargoes, financial sanctions and travel bans — designed to eliminate or minimize unintended effects by focusing on those responsible for the policies condemned by the international community, while leaving other parts of the population and international trade relations unaffected (asdf, 2008).
The Council has established two international criminal tribunals to prosecute crimes against humanity in the former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda. The tribunals are subsidiary organs of the Council. Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001, the Council established its Counter-Terrorism Committee, also a subsidiary organ. Since 1994, a working group of the General Assembly has been considering Security Council reform, including the issue of equitable representation and expansion of membership (asdf, 2008).
Economic and Social Council
The Charter established the Economic and Social Council as the principal organ to coordinate the economic, social and related work of the United Nations and the specialized agencies and institutions — known as the United Nations family of organizations. The Council has 54 members, who serve for three-year terms. Voting in the Council is by simple majority; each member has one vote (asdf, 2008).
Functions and powers
The functions and powers of the Economic and Social Council according to asdf (2008) are:
• To serve as the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues, and for formulating policy recommendations addressed to member states and the United Nations system;
• To make or initiate studies and reports and make recommendations on international economic, social, cultural, educational, health and related matters;
• To promote respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms;
• To assist in preparing and organizing major international conferences in the economic, social and related fields and promote a coordinated follow-up to these conferences;
• To coordinate the activities of the specialized agencies, through consultations with and recommendations to them, and through recommendations to the General Assembly.
Through its discussion of international economic and social issues and its policy recommendations, ECOSOC plays a key role in fostering international cooperation for development and in setting the priorities for action.
Sessions
The Council generally holds several short sessions and many preparatory meetings, roundtables and panel discussions with the members of civil society throughout the year, to deal with the organization of its work. It also holds a four-week substantive session in July, alternating between New York and Geneva. That session includes a high-level segment, attended by Ministers and other high officials, to discuss major economic, social and humanitarian issues. The year-round work of the Council is carried out in its subsidiary and related bodies.
Subsidiary and related bodies
The Council's subsidiary machinery includes:
• Eight functional commissions, which are deliberative bodies whose role is to consider and make recommendations on issues in their areas of responsibility and expertise: Statistical Commission, Commission on Population and Development, Commission for Social Development, Commission on the Status of Women, Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Commission on Science and Technology for Development, Commission on Sustainable Development;
• Five Regional Commissions: Economic Commission for Africa (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia), Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok, Thailand), Economic Commission for Europe (Geneva, Switzerland), Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (Santiago, Chile), and Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (Beirut, Lebanon);
• Three standing committees: Committee for Programme and Coordination, Committee on Non-Governmental Organizations, Committee on Negotiations with Intergovernmental Agencies;
• A number of expert bodies on subjects such as development policy; public administration; international cooperation in tax matters; economic, social and cultural rights; energy and sustainable development;
• Other bodies, including the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues and the United Nations Forum on Forests.
The Council also cooperates with and to a certain extent coordinates the work of United Nations programmes (such as UNDP, UNEP, UNFPA, UN-HABITAT, and UNICEF) and the specialized agencies (such as FAO, ILO, UNESCO and WHO), all of which report to the Council and make recommendations for its substantive sessions.
Relations with non-governmental organizations
Under the Charter, the Economic and Social Council consults with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) concerned with matters within its competence. Over 2,870 NGOs have consultative status with the Council. The Council recognizes that these organizations should have the opportunity to express their views, and that they possess special experience or technical knowledge of value to its work (asdf, 2008).
The Council classifies NGOs into three categories: category I organizations are those concerned with most of the Council's activities; category II organizations have special competence in specific areas; and organizations that can occasionally contribute to the Council are placed on a roster for ad hoc consultations. NGOs with consultative status may send observers to meetings of the Council and its subsidiary bodies and may submit written statements relevant to its work. They may also consult with the United Nations Secretariat on matters of mutual concern. Over the years, the relationship between the United Nations and affiliated NGOs has developed significantly. Increasingly, NGOs are seen as partners who are consulted on policy and programme matters and as valuable links to civil society.
NGOs around the world, in increasing numbers, are working daily with the United Nations community to help achieve the objectives of the Charter (asdf, 2008).
Trusteeship Council
The Trusteeship Council was established by the Charter in 1945 to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories placed under the administration of 7 member states, and ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government or independence. The Charter authorized the Trusteeship Council to examine and discuss reports from the Administering Authority on the political, economic, social and educational advancement of the peoples of Trust Territories; to examine petitions from the Territories; and to undertake special missions to the Territories (asdf, 2008).
By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence, either as separate states or by joining neighbouring independent countries. The last to do so was the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (Palau), which became the 185th member state. Its work completed, the Trusteeship Council — its membership reduced now to the five permanent members of the Security Council (China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States) — has amended its rules of procedure to meet as and where occasion may require (asdf, 2008).
International Court of Justice
As asdf (2003) maintains that the International court is located at The Hague, in the Netherlands, the International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions to the United Nations and its specialized agencies. Its Statute is an integral part of the United Nations Charter.
The Court is open to all states that are parties to its Statute, which include all members of the United Nations. Only states may be parties in contentious cases before the Court and submit disputes to it. The Court is not open to private persons and entities or international organizations.
The General Assembly and the Security Council can ask the Court for an advisory opinion on any legal question. Other organs of the United Nations and the specialized agencies, when authorized by the Assembly, can ask for advisory opinions on legal questions within the scope of their activities.
Jurisdiction
The Court's jurisdiction covers all questions that states refer to it, and all matters provided for in the United Nations Charter, or in international treaties and conventions. States may bind themselves in advance to accept the jurisdiction of the Court, either by signing a treaty or convention that provides for referral to the Court or by making a declaration to that effect. Such declarations accepting compulsory jurisdiction often contain reservations excluding certain classes of disputes (asdf, 2008).
In accordance with its Statute, the Court decides disputes by applying:
• International conventions establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting states;
• International custom as evidence of a general practice accepted as law;
• The general principles of law recognized by nations; and
• Judicial decisions and the teachings of the most qualified scholars of the various nations (asdf, 2008)
Membership
The Court is composed of 15 Judges elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council, voting independently. They are chosen on the basis of their qualifications, and care is taken to ensure that the principal legal systems of the world are represented in the Court. No two Judges may be from the same country. The Judges serve a nine-year term and may be re-elected. They cannot engage in any other occupation during their term of office (asdf, 2008).
The Court normally sits in plenary session, but may form smaller units called chambers if the parties so request. Judgments given by chambers are considered as rendered by the full Court. The Court also has a Chamber for Environmental Matters and forms annually a Chamber of Summary Procedure (asdf, 2008).
Peacekeeping
United Nations peacekeeping operations are a crucial instrument at the disposal of the international community to advance peace and security. The role of UN peacekeeping was recognized in 1988, when United Nations peacekeeping forces received the Nobel Peace Prize. While not specifically envisaged in the Charter, the UN pioneered peacekeeping in 1948 with the establishment of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization in the Middle East. Since then, it has established a total of 63 — operations — 50 of these since 1988.1 On 1 October 2007, there were 17 active peacekeeping operations (asdf, 2008).
Peacekeeping operations are deployed with the authorization of the Security Council and the consent of the host government and/or the main parties to the conflict. Peacekeeping has traditionally involved a primarily military model of observing ceasefires and the separation of forces after inter-state wars. Today, it has evolved into a complex model of many elements — military, police and civilian — working together to help lay the foundations of a sustainable peace. In recent years, the Council has introduced the practice of invoking the enforcement
provisions in Chapter VII of the UN Charter when authorizing the deployment of certain UN peacekeeping operations, or mandating them to perform tasks which may require the use of force — such as the protection of civilians under imminent threat of physical violence. Traditionally, UN peacekeepers could only use their weapons in self-defence, but the more "robust" mandates under Chapter VII enable them to use force, for example, to protect civilians. The military personnel of peacekeeping operations are voluntarily provided by member states and are financed by the member states, who are assessed under the peacekeeping budget (asdf, 2008).
Troop-contributing states are compensated at a standard rate from that budget. Peacekeeping operations were expected to cost some $5.28 billion for the fiscal year beginning July 2006 — an historic high for UN peacekeeping, but still less than half of 1 per cent of world military spending. Operations are financed through the peacekeeping budget and include troops from many countries. This worldwide "burden-sharing" can offer extraordinary efficiency in human, financial and political terms (asdf, 2008).
On 1 November 2007, there were 82,237 military and police personnel from 119 countries serving in UN peacekeeping operations. Since 1948, 2,415 peacekeepers had lost their lives in the line of duty. Conflicts today are a complex mix. Their roots may be essentially internal, but they are complicated by cross-border involvement, either by states or by economic interests and other non-state actors. Recent conflicts in Africa have shown the deadly mix of civil strife and illegal export of natural resources — primarily diamonds — to fuel arms purchases. In addition, the consequences of conflicts can quickly become international because of illegal arms flows, terrorism, drug trafficking, refugee flows and environmental degradation (asdf, 2008).
United Nations peacekeeping operations between 1948-2007
• United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO, established 1948), in the Middle East (strength: military 152; civilian 225)
• United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP, 1949) (military 44; civilian 73)
• United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP, 1964) (military 872; civilian police 66; civilian 145)
• United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF, 1974), in the Syrian Golan Heights (military 1,047; civilian 140)
• United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL, 1978) (military 12,341; civilian 908)
• United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO, 1991) (military 214; police 6; civilian 247; UN Volunteers 24)
• United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG, 1993) (military 134; police 18; civilian 282; UN Volunteers 1)
• United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK, 1999) (military 40; police 1,953; civilian 2,412; UN Volunteers 132)
• United Nations Observer Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC, 1999) (military 17,359; police 1.049; civilian 3,021; UN Volunteers 571)
• United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE, 2000) (military 503; civilian 343; UN Volunteers 63)
• United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL, 2003) (military 12,438; police 1,148; civilian 1,453; UN Volunteers 238)
• United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI, 2004) (military 8,034; police 1,182; civilians 989; UN Volunteers 284)
• United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH, 2004) (military 7,064; civilian police 1,923; civilian 1,663; UN Volunteers 199)
• United Nations Mission in the Sudan (UNMIS, 2005) (military 9,288; police 664; civilian 3,196; UN Volunteers 250)
• United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT, 2006) (military 33; civilian police 1,546; civilian 1,134; UN Volunteers 124)
• African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID, 2007) (military 7,509; police 1,704; civilian 960; UN Volunteers 129) (when fully deployed: military 19,555; police 6, 432; civilians 5,034; UN Volunteers 548)
• United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad (MINURCAT, 2007) (military 14; police 71; civilian 32; UN Volunteers 16) (when fully deployed: "a maximum of 300 police and 50 military liaison officers and an appropriate number of civilian personnel" (asdf, 2008).
Peacekeeping operations can take many forms. They are constantly evolving in the light of changing circumstances. Among the tasks discharged by peacekeeping operations over the years are:
• Maintenance of ceasefires and separation of forces. By providing "breathing space", an operation based on a limited agreement between parties can foster an atmosphere conducive to negotiations.
• Protection of humanitarian operations. In many conflicts, civilian populations have been deliberately targeted as a means to gain political ends. In such situations, peacekeepers have been asked to provide protection and support for humanitarian operations.
However, such tasks can place peacekeepers in difficult political positions, and can lead to threats to their security.
• Implementation of a comprehensive peace settlement. Complex, multidimensional operations, deployed on the basis of comprehensive peace agreements, can assist in such diverse tasks as providing humanitarian assistance, monitoring human rights, observing elections and coordinating support for economic reconstruction (asdf, 2008).
No catalogue of such roles can be exhaustive. Future conflicts are likely to continue to present complex challenges to the international community. An effective response will require courageous and imaginative use of the tools for peace.
Enforcement
Under Chapter VII of the Charter, the Security Council can take enforcement measures to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such measures range from economic sanctions to international military action.
Sanctions
The Council has resorted to mandatory sanctions as an enforcement tool when peace was threatened and diplomatic efforts had failed. Sanctions have been imposed against Iraq, the former Yugoslavia, Libya, Haiti, Liberia, Rwanda, Somalia, UNITA forces in Angola, Sudan, Sierra Leone, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (including Kosovo), Afghanistan, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Iran and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. The range of sanctions has included comprehensive economic and trade sanctions, or more specific measures such as arms embargoes, travel bans and financial or diplomatic restrictions (asdf, 2008).
The use of sanctions seeks to apply pressure on a state or entity to comply with the objectives set by the Security Council without resorting to the use of force. Sanctions thus offer the Council an important tool to enforce its decisions. The universal character of the UN makes it an especially appropriate body to establish and monitor sanctions. At the same time, many states and humanitarian organizations have expressed concerns at the possible adverse impact of sanctions on the most vulnerable segments of the civilian population, such as the elderly, the disabled, refugees or mothers with children. Concerns have also been expressed at the negative economic, social and even political impact sanctions can have on the economies of third or neighbouring countries, where trade and economic relations with the sanctioned state are interrupted (asdf, 2008).
It is increasingly accepted that the design and application of sanctions need to be improved. The negative effects of sanctions can be reduced either by incorporating humanitarian exceptions directly into Security Council resolutions, or by better targeting them. So-called "smart sanctions" — which seek to pressure those in power rather than the population at large, thus reducing humanitarian costs — have been gaining support. Smart sanctions may, for instance, involve freezing the financial assets and blocking the financial transactions of elites or entities whose illicit activities triggered sanctions in the first place.
Authorizing military action
When peacemaking efforts fail, stronger action by member states may be authorized under Chapter VII of the Charter. The Security Council has authorized coalitions of member states to use "all necessary means", including military action, to deal with a conflict — as it did to restore the sovereignty of Kuwait after its invasion by Iraq (1991); to establish a secure environment for humanitarian relief operations in Somalia (1992); to contribute to the protection of civilians at risk in Rwanda (1994); to restore the democratically elected government in Haiti (1994); to protect humanitarian operations in Albania (1997); and to restore peace and security in East Timor (1999 and 2006) (asdf, 2008).
These actions, though sanctioned by the Security Council, were entirely under the control of the participating states. They were not United Nations peacekeeping operations — which are established by the Security Council and directed by the Secretary-General.
Peace building
For the United Nations, peace building refers to efforts to assist countries and regions in their transitions from war to peace, including activities and programmes to support and strengthen these transitions. A peace building process normally begins with the signing of a peace agreement by former warring parties and a United Nations role in facilitating its implementation. This may include a continued diplomatic role for the UN, to ensure that difficulties are overcome through negotiation rather than resort to arms (asdf, 2008).
It may also include various types of assistance — such as the deployment of military forces as peacekeepers; the repatriation and reintegration of refugees; the holding of elections; and the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of soldiers. At the heart of peacebuilding is the attempt to build a new and legitimate state, one which will have the capacity to peacefully manage disputes, protect its civilians and ensure respect for basic human rights (asdf, 2008).
Peace building involves action by a wide array of organizations of the UN system, including the World Bank, regional economic and other organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local citizens' groups. Peace building has played a prominent role in United Nations operations in Cambodia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mozambique, Liberia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo, as well as more recently in Afghanistan, Burundi, Iraq and Sierra Leone. An example of inter-state peace building has been the UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (asdf, 2008).
Electoral assistance
The United Nations broke new ground in 1989, when it supervised the entire election process that led to the independence of Namibia. Since then, the UN, at the request of governments, has assisted with elections in countries such as Nicaragua (1990), Angola (1992), Cambodia (1993), El Salvador, South Africa and Mozambique (1994), Eastern Slavonia (Croatia) (1997), the Central African Republic (1998 and 1999), Afghanistan (2004 and 2005), Iraq and Liberia (2005), and Haiti and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (2006). It also observed the 1993 referendum in Eritrea, and organized and conducted the 1999 popular consultation in East Timor and its 2001 and 2002 elections, which led to the independence of East Timor as Timor-Leste, as well as its elections in 2007 (asdf, 2008).
The degree and type of United Nations involvement depends upon such factors as the requests received from governments, provisions of peace agreements, or mandates from the General Assembly or the Security Council. The UN has played a variety of roles, ranging from technical assistance to the actual conduct of the electoral process. In some cases, the UN will coordinate the activities of international observers. Typically, such observers follow the registration of voters, the electoral campaign and the organization of the polls. Since 1992, the United Nations has provided various forms of electoral assistance to more than 107 countries — including advisory services, logistics, training, civic education, computer applications and short-term observation (asdf, 2008).
The Electoral Assistance Division in the Department of Political Affairs (www.un.org/Depts/dpa/ead) serves as the focal point for electoral assistance within the UN system.
Disarmament
Since the birth of the United Nations, the goals of multilateral disarmament and arms limitation have been central to its efforts to maintain international peace and security. The Organization has given highest priority to reducing and eventually eliminating nuclear weapons, destroying chemical weapons and strengthening the prohibition against biological weapons — all of which pose the greatest threat to humankind. While these objectives have remained constant over the years, the scope of deliberations and negotiations is changing as political realities and the international situation evolve.
The international community is now considering more closely the excessive and destabilizing proliferation of small arms and light weapons and has mobilized to combat the massive deployment of landmines — phenomena that threaten the economic and social fabric of societies and kill and maim civilians, too many of whom are women and children.
Consideration is also being given to the need for multilaterally negotiated norms against the spread of ballistic missile technology, the explosive remnants of war, and the impact of new information and telecommunications technologies on international security.
The tragic events of 11 September 2001 in the United States, and subsequent terrorist attacks in a number of countries, underlined the potential danger of weapons of mass destruction falling into the hands of non-state actors. The attack could have had even more devastating consequences had the terrorists been able to acquire and use chemical, biological or nuclear weapons. Reflecting these concerns, the General Assembly adopted at its fifty seventh session in 2002, for the first time, a resolution on measures to prevent terrorists from acquiring weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery (asdf, 2008).
In 2004, the Security Council took its first formal decision on the danger of the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, particularly to non-state actors. Acting under the enforcement provisions of the UN Charter, the Council unanimously adopted resolution 1540, obliging states to refrain from any support for non-state actors in the development, acquisition, manufacture, possession, transport, transfer or use of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons and their means of delivery. The resolution imposes far-reaching obligations on all states to establish domestic measures to prevent the proliferation of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, and their means of delivery, including the establishment of appropriate controls over related materials (asdf, 2008).
Subsequently, the General Assembly adopted the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, which was opened for signature in September 2005.
In addition to its role in the actual disarmament of weapons and in verifying compliance, the United Nations plays an essential role in multilateral disarmament by assisting member states in establishing new norms and in strengthening and consolidating existing agreements. One of the most effective means of deterring the use or threatened use of weapons of mass destruction by terrorists is to strengthen multilateral regimes already developed to ban those weapons and prevent their proliferation.
Disarmament machinery
The United Nations Charter gives the General Assembly the chief responsibility for considering "the general principles of cooperation in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments" (Article 11). The Assembly has two subsidiary bodies dealing with disarmament issues: the First Committee (Disarmament and International Security), which meets during the Assembly's regular session and deals with all disarmament issues on its agenda; and the Disarmament Commission, a specialized deliberative body that focuses on specific issues and meets for three weeks every year (asdf, 2008).
The Conference on Disarmament is the international community's sole multilateral negotiating forum for disarmament agreements. The Conference successfully negotiated both the Chemical Weapons Convention and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty. Since it addresses matters that touch upon the national security interests of states, it works strictly on the basis of consensus. It has a limited membership of 65 states and a unique relationship with the General Assembly. While the Conference defines its own rules and develops its own agenda, it takes into account the recommendations of the Assembly and reports to it annually. Since 1997, the Conference has been unable to agree on a substantive programme of work due to lack of consensus among its members on disarmament priorities (asdf, 2008).
In the UN Secretariat, the Office for Disarmament Affairs implements the decisions of the Assembly on disarmament matters. The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research
(UNIDIR) undertakes independent research on disarmament and related problems, particularly international security issues. The Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters advises the Secretary- General on matters relating to arms limitation and disarmament, and serves as the Board of Trustees of UNIDIR. It also advises on implementation of the recommendations of the United Nations
Disarmament Information Programme.
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Although most people associate the United Nations with the issues of peace and security, the vast majority of the Organization's resources are in fact devoted to advancing the Charter's pledge to "promote higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress and development". United Nations development efforts have profoundly affected the lives and well-being of millions of people throughout the world. Guiding the United Nations endeavours is the conviction that lasting international peace and security are possible only if the economic and social well-being of people everywhere is assured (asdf, 2008).
Many of the economic and social transformations that have taken place globally since 1945 have been significantly affected in their direction and shape by the work of the United Nations. As the global centre for consensus-building, the UN has set priorities and goals for international cooperation to assist countries in their development efforts and to foster a supportive global economic environment.
Since the 1990s, the UN has provided a platform for formulating and promoting key new developmental objectives on the international agenda, through a series of global conferences. It has articulated the need for incorporating issues such as the advancement of women, human rights, sustainable development, environmental protection and good governance into the development paradigm.
This global consensus was also expressed through a series of international development decades, the first beginning in 1961. These broad statements of policy and goals, while
emphasizing certain issues of particular concern in each decade, consistently stressed
the need for progress on all aspects of development, social as well as economic, and the
importance of narrowing the disparities between industrialized and developing countries.
As the twentieth century came to an end, the focus shifted to implementing these commitments in an integrated and coordinated manner. At their Millennium Summit in 2000, member states adopted a set of wide-ranging Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), supported by a series of specific, attainable targets.
Together, the goals and targets aim at: eradicating extreme poverty and hunger; achieving universal primary education; promoting gender equality and the empowerment of women; reducing child mortality; improving maternal health; combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; ensuring environmental sustainability; and developing a global partnership for development. The international community recommitted itself to those goals during a World Summit in 2005, aimed at reviewing and moving ahead with the outcome of the Millennium Summit (asdf, 2008).
By way of conclusion, The United Nations Organization plays a significant role in maintaining peace and harmony with the use of its various departments and machineries among member state and societies with weaker military strength. This scenario has resulted to the increasing number of nations that are members and have accepted to promote world peace and harmony on planet earth. The United Nations also encourage economic and social development, human right recognition and humanitarian action as their concern involves any phenomenon that could threaten a nation or nations as time pass by their roles are increasingly changing to stand the taste of time.
REFERENCES
Asdf (2008) The United Nations Today. United Nations
Department of Public Information: United Nations Headquarters New York,
NY 10017. ISBN 978-92-1-101160-9
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