WHAT CONSTITUTE THE SOCIOLOGICAL METHOD OF OBSERVATION AND VALIDATION.

WHAT CONSTITUTE THE SOCIOLOGICAL METHOD OF OBSERVATION AND VALIDATION. BY JACOB YOL 08123463845 MARCH, 2014 From time immemorial, society has developed in various stages ranging from theological/traditional, metaphysical and presently to what is known to be the scientific stage which determined and unveil man’s level of inquiry and understanding of the social world. August Comte a great French thinker of his time laid the foundation of sociology in 1798-1857 and one of his greatest work was “Positivism” where he rejected the theological/traditional (social thinking) and metaphysical (social thought) in favour of positive knowledge based on systematic observation and experimentation (sociological thought). Sociology as a discipline tends to interpret and explain society using scientific methods of research which emphasizes on observation and validation for checks and reliability. The works of Emile Durkheim in his study of “Suicide” realized the dreams of August Comte for coining sociology as a scientific discipline as he adopted the use of measuring social phenomenon through observation thereby interpreting social phenomenon mathematically. A methodology is a system of rules, principles and procedures that guide scientific investigation (Shankarrao, 2008). Research methodology provides guidelines for collecting evidence about what takes place and for explaining why it takes place. These findings can be checked and verified by other researchers. The heart of the research process constitutes the actual procedures that sociologist use in collecting their facts or data. Sociologist use a variety of research methods, systematic techniques for gathering and analyzing facts about phenomenon generally. This include; Observation is undoubtedly, the oldest and still our basic method of getting information about the world around us, we look out of the window in the morning to see whether the sun is shining or whether it is raining, and make our decision about carrying an umbrella or not. If we are driving, we look out to see whether the traffic is red or green. As we students move from hostels to the classroom, we take note of the dresses others wear and the behaviour of other students and relate these to what we think. There is no need to multiple examples as long as we are awake; we are constantly engaged in observation. Observation simply means the act of looking, seeing and taking note of an occurrence, observational techniques are sometimes regarded as haphazard or unplanned. This is quite an erroneous notion. Observation used as a research technique, is always expert directed by a specific purpose, it is systematic, carefully focused and thoroughly recorded. Like other research procedures, it is subject to the usual checks for accuracy, validity and reliability (Onigu & Ogionwo, 2006). Through experience and training, the observer knows just what to look for. He/she is able to distinguish between the significant aspects of the situation and factors that have little or no importance to the investigation. Since objectivity is a sine qua non in research, the observer employs careful and accurate methods of measuring and recording. The use of accurate instrument such as the check list, score card, the scale, thermometer, stethoscope, audiometer, camera, tape recording and other devices of inquiry, helps to objectify and systemize the process of observation. In this way, observation becomes more refined than mere common sense observation. Observation is, thus not only one of the oldest and the most pervasive source of information about the activities of daily life, it is also a primary tool for scientific inquiry. Observation becomes a scientific technique to the extent that: 1. It serves a formulation purpose, 2. It can be planned systematically, 3. It can be recorded systematically and related to more general propositions rather than being presented as a set of interesting curious notions; and 4. It is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Observation is a vital principal technique of social research. As Ian Robertson puts it, observation involves an intensive examination of a particular group, or social process. The researcher does not attempt to influence what happens in any way but aims instead at an accurate description and analysis of what takes place. Observation in sociology gives sociologist the ability to see things for themselves acting socially so as to give a constructive description about the phenomenon under study. Validity is concerned with the meaningfulness of research components. When researchers measure behaviours, they are concerned with whether they are measuring what they intended to measure. Does the IQ test measure intelligence? Does the GRE actually predict successful completion of a graduate study program? These are questions of validity and even though they can never be answered with complete certainty, researchers can develop strong support for the validity of their measures (Bollen, 1989). In conventional usage, as Earl (2007) puts it that validity refers to the extent to which empirical measures adequately reflect the real meaning of the concept under consideration. Sociologist operates on agreements about the terms used and the concept they represent to ensure reliability on phenomenon observed. The dyad is adopted by sociologist to ensure that scientific method bring about credibility and objectivity in the study of social phenomena. The scientific methods which emphasizes on observation and validation in sociology is made up of the following procedures in arriving at findings that are compelling and are held in high esteem are itemized below; Formulation of Problem A problem is a gap in knowledge, something not understood. It may be simple or complex. But this problem is to be defined properly to give an insight of the phenomenon under study, other wise we may miss the direction of our argument and as well be wasted. Here observation regarding the existing amount of knowledge on that particular issue may help one to define the problem properly. Formulation of Hypothesis When the problem to be tackled is identified, the sociologist approaches the problem with unbiased so as to unveil the likelihood of discovering new ideas. These accounts for the primary ideas which may guide the researcher in his inquire which may be termed as hypothesis. It is the tentative explanation of phenomenon which is systematic in nature. It is a provisional supposition which is not yet proved but is anticipated to be correct as it may fall on either side of the postulation. Observation and Collection of Data The formulated hypothesis has to be tested. This requires observation of facts by the researcher and as well the collection of facts. In social research data is derived through interviews, questionnaires, field observation etc. the method of collecting data depend upon the nature of the research and the resources at our disposal. Analysis and Synthesis After data is collected, they are processed and analyzed in order to draw proper inferences. This requires the classification of data. Classification here refers to the arranging of data in different groups or classes according to their similarities and dissimilarities. Generalization/Conclusion After data collected is classified. The analysis presents broad inferences; conclusion and generalization are done as well. Conclusively, what constitutes the scientific methodology of observation and validity in sociology lies between the laid down scientific rules, principles and procedure of defining the problem (formulation of problem), identifying the problem (formulation of hypothesis), observing and recording of information (observation and collection of data), adopting a statistical tool in analyzing data (analyzing and synthesis) and finally, concluding the research with a tentative conclusion that could be use to specify or generalize the phenomenon under study. References Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural Equations with Latent Variables (pp. 179-225). John Wiley & Sons. Earl, B. (2007), The Practice of Social Research. Onigu, O. & Ogionwo, W. (2006), “An Introduction to Sociological Studies.” Heinemann Shankarrao, N. (2008), Principles of Sociology. Hand and Company Ltd. india

THE IMPACT OF RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN & CHILDREN IN VANDEIKYA LGA OF BENUE STATE, NIGERIA

THE IMPACT OF RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN & CHILDREN IN VANDEIKYA LGA OF BENUE STATE, NIGERIA BY JACOB YOL 08123463845 MARCH, 2014 ABSTRACT This study sets out to examine the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. Specifically, the study investigated the causes and patterns of domestic violence and also assessed the impact of domestic violence on women and children and the way forward. The theoretical framework for the study was the conflict theory. The study utilized descriptive survey research design and data was collected using interviews and questionnaires administered to one hundred and eighty (180) respondents. The sample was obtained using cluster sampling techniques. Data was analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Findings show that religious affiliation seriously has an impact on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. It is therefore recommended that, the federal, State and Local government should initiate policies and programmes to alleviate poverty these policies and programes should be well executed to reach the target poor population and so as reduce unemployment rate. Moreso, marital counseling units should be set up to help couples with marital problems and the ministry of women affairs and other parastatals should help bridge the gap between men and women in order to enhance peaceful co-existence devoid of marital violence in the society. TABLE OF CONTENT Title Page…………………………………………………………………. i Table of Contents………………………………………………………… ii List of Tables……………………………………………………………… iii Abstract……………………………………………………………………. iv CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………. 1 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem……………………….….. 2 1.3 Research Questions…………………………………………..…… 3 1.4 Objective of the Study…………………………………………….. 4 1.4.1 General Objective………………………………………………….. . 4 1.4.2 Specific Objectives………………………………………………… 4 1.5 Significance of the Study…………………………………………. 6 1.6 Scope of the Study………………………………………………….. 6 1.7 Definition of Terms…………………………………………………. 7 CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review 2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………… 8 2.1 The Concept of Domestic Violence………………………..……. 8 2.2 Forms of Domestic Violence………………………………….…… 10 2.3 The Causes of Domestic Violence……………………………...... 12 2.4 The Impact of Domestic Violence on Women……………….. …18 2.5 The Impact of Religious Affiliation on Domestic Violence against Women and Children…………………………………… .21 2.6 Measures of Controlling Domestic Violence…………………. 22 2.7 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………. 23 2.7.1 Structural Functionalism…………..…………………………… 24 2.7.2 Conflict Theory…………………………………………………… …25 CHAPTER THREE: Methodology 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….. 29 3.2 Study Area……………………………………………………………. 29 3.3 Population of Study……………………………………………….… 31 3.4 Sampling Procedures……………………………………………….. 32 3.5 Questionnaire Instrument………………………………………... 32 3.5.2 Interview Instrument……………………………………………… 33 3.6 Method of Data Analysis………………………………………….. 34 3.7 Limitation…………………………………………………………..… 34 CHAPTER FOUR: Data Presentation and Analysis 4.0 Introduction………………………………………………………… 36 4.1 Socio-Demographic Attributes of Respondents……………. 36 4.2 The Impact of Religious Affiliation on Domestic Violence against Women and Children………………………………….. 41 4.3 The Common Pattern of Domestic Violence against Women and Children in Vandeikya…………………………………….. 43 4.4 Discussion of Findings………………………………………….. 49 CHAPTER FIVE: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 Summary……………………………………………………………. 52 5.2 Conclusion………………………………………………………….. 53 5.3 Recommendation………………………………………………….. 54   LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Sex Distribution of Respondents Table 4.2: Age Distribution of Respondents Table 4.3: Occupational Distribution of Respondents Table 4.4: Educational Distribution of Respondents Table 4.5: Religious Affiliation of Respondents Table 4.6: Marital Distribution of Respondents Table 4.7: Causes of Domestic Violence against Women and Children Table 4.8: Does Religious Affiliation facilitate Domestic Violence Table 4.9: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Marital Instability Table 4.10: The Effects of domestic Violence on the Health of Women and Children Table 4.11: Does Domestic Violence Affects the Growth and Development of Women and Children CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Domestic violence against women and children refers to the unfair treatment of women in the family to gain a particular advantage which put women and children in a disadvantaged position. Over three decades now, numerous cases of women’s rights, violence such as acid baths, murder of women, rape, widow abuse and physical assaults have occurred in Nigeria. Unfortunately, it is only extreme cases of women’s rights violent which results in death or permanent disability that earn the media attention and the police interests. Critical cases like female genital mutilation, wife battery, marital rape, sexual harassment, verbal and emotional abuse, incest, termination of employment as a result of pregnancy etc. are considered problematic enough to be highlighted in the media as a result to be taken seriously by the police. More so, the victims of violence, especially domestic violence and rape, hardly are reported to the appropriate authorities. For instance, wife battery is considered a private affair between husband and wife. Moreover, the tradition or culture and religious belief in Nigeria is a typical patriarchal society which sees the wife as a property of her husband, who has moral right to beat her as penalty for insubordination. Domestic violence against women and children has been in existence since time immemorial. As a matter of fact it is experienced in all ramifications with varying degree of severity and it cut across various spheres of the society. it is also pertinent that domestic violence against women and children without doubt or mixing words is enshrined in the culture and religious parameters of every society, thus making it unduly difficult for them (women) to liberate themselves from the domestic violence. It is in view of this fact that, the study is aimed at unfolding the factors or conditions upon which domestic violence against women and children is hinged upon, with a view to proffering possible solution on domestic violence against women and children in the society in general and Vandeikya local government in particular. 1.2 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM Domestic violence against women and children remains the greatest challenge and phenomenon demanding absolute and urgent attention. The effects of domestic violence on women and children have attracted great concern over the years. It is important to note that domestic violence against women and children has become prevalent in the society especially in Benue State and Vandeikya local government area in particular, it is a scourge that is no just worrisome but also dangerous. However, there have been so much social and economic effects and even psychological effects on women and children who are domestically abused by men. Inspite of several campaigns by different organizations, the government, Non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) and Christian communities, domestic violence still persists especially in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. The phenomenon of domestic violence against women and children constitutes great problem and has hindered the gap between men and women in families, probably due to the role religious affiliation plays in facilitating the discrimination. This has become a tremendous social problem in Nigeria, infact Africa and beyond. It is in the light of the foregoing that the researcher deemed it pertinent to undertake a study on the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State, so as to understand the phenomenon better with a view of suggesting appropriate measures to forestall the consequences of domestic violence against women and children in the society. 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The research intends to make use of the following questions 1. What are the causes of domestic violence in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State? 2. What are the common patterns of domestic violence against woman and children that exist in Vandeikya local government? 3. What is the impact of religious affiliations on domestic violence in Vandeikya? 4. What are the effects of domestic violence on women and children in Vandeikya? 5. What are the possible ways of eliminating or reducing domestic violence against women and children in the society? 1.4 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY 1.4.1 General Objective The general objective of the study is to examine the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in the society. 1.4.2 Specific Objectives The specific objectives of this research include: i. To identify the causes of domestic violence on women and children. ii. To determine the common patterns of domestic violence that exist in the area. iii. To assess the effects of domestic violence on women and children. iv. To suggest possible ways of reducing or eliminating domestic violence against women and children in the society.   1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The study is significant in contributing to the existing knowledge about domestic violence. The study will unveil the causes of domestic violence which will help the government, non-governmental organizations and other parastatals to minimise incidence of domestic violence in the society. The study is aimed at suggesting ways and possible results that may lead to the improvement in the well-being of a greater percentage of the population especially the female folks. It may also be of immense benefits to researchers, students as well as policy makers in the area. It will also serve as reference point for further research in the area. The study is particularly significant to the researcher as part of the partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc Hons) in Sociology. 1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study set out to investigate impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. The study would have had a wider coverage but due to the high cost involved in carrying out such a study, its coverage has been narrowed down to Vandeikya local government area of Benue State.   1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS Religion: Religion is a system of beliefs and practices (rituals) based on some sacred or supernatural realm that guides human behaviour, giving meaning to life and unites believers into a single moral community (Durkheim, 1995). Gender: Gender is the positioning of women and women in the society. This is the consideration of dissimilar interest between men and women (Rowbotha, 1992). Domestic Violence: Domestic violence can be defined as the maltreatment or molestation of the female counterparts by the male counterparts in the society.   CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter is aimed at reviewing various literatures on domestic violence. It is true that the incidence of domestic violence is a wide spread occurrence affecting majority of women and children in our society. Hence in this literature review, the researcher intends to bring out the causal factors and also drawing up the role of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children, measures of controlling domestic violence will also be addressed and theoretical framework. 2.1 THE CONCEPT OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE The issue of domestic violence is a global phenomenon that occurs in all strata of society, occupation, professions and income groups irrespective of colour, religion and knowledge. As offensive as it is, cases of domestic violence mostly go unheard, very much unreported and under-documented. Moreso, its prevalence is also under-estimated around the world due to this singular reason of under-reporting. Domestic violence has devastating physical, financial and social effects on women and children in the society According to Melliech (2001), Domestic violence refers to assaultive or abusive behaviour committed by a man against a woman with whom he has intimate sexual cohabiting or marital relationship. It is so after labelled with various names such as wife abuse, spousal abuse and conjugal or family. Meena (1997), also considered domestic violence as various forms of abuse meted on women like wife beating, acid bath, pushing arm twisting, stabbing, abuse, ear-twisting among others. In same vein Atinmo in Oyekanmi (1997) has defined domestic violence as any act of aggression directed by a husband against his wife. It covers incidence of punching, beating, slapping, stabbing, acid bath and throwing boiling water which causes injury or death. Domestic violence against women and children is a global problem, with rape, assault, wife battery and sexual harassment as obvious manifestation. The United Nations (UN) and other world bodies recognise these acts as a gross violation of human rights (Oyekanmi, 1997). Other writers as Payne and Hahn (1993) have identified psychological forms of domestic violence, which are usually in form of emotional abuse, verbal attacks, threats of violence and communication which leaves indelible scars on the mind of the victims. Psychology believe that aside from physical harm of rape , a great amount of emotional damage may occur, such damage stems from the concept of broken trust. They further believed that survival of such violence suffer from post traumatic stress syndrome. They can have anxiety and sleepless nights (Payne and Hahn, 1998: 593). From the foregoing, one could therefore consider domestic violence as any act that is deliberately or intentionally done by a man to injure, hurt, humiliate, deprive, sexually, emotionally, politically or religiously. Domestic violence been a social global phenomenon constitute a social problem that need to addressed or tackled to harness development in our communities. 2.2 FORMS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Domestic violence is more common than we thought. It occurs in all occupation, profession and income groups. It occurs because a man doesn’t understand his emotions or his beliefs (Melliech, 2001) maintained therefore that domestic violence takes many forms including but not limited to the following: Physical Abuse Physical abuse includes pushing, slapping, punching, chocking, killing, breaking bones, throwing objet s, abandoning her in an unsafe place, deprivation of food, water, clothing, confining her in a closet room or building, locking her out of her home, using weapons against her, murder etc Emotional Abuse This may include withdrawal of affection, jealousy, denial of her rights to feelings or emotions put downs, constant criticisms, name calling, isolating her from friends and family, controlling her activities, denying her any personal pleasures or outside interest, destruction of properties, pets or treasured objects . Threats to harm friends or family, forcing her to watch her children being abused without being allowed to intervene, making her account for every minute, every action, controlling her with fear, threats of suicide, threats on her life. Economic Abuse The economic abuse or violence include; allowing a woman to have no money of her own, no money for emergencies, not even her own earnings, forcing her to account for and justify all money or improve her earning capacity. Religious or Spiritual Abuse This may include; breaking down ones beliefs system (cultural or religious), being punished or ridiculed for ones beliefs, preventing the practice of beliefs. Similarly, Griffiths (1985) maintained that domestic violence could occur in many forms. These include; physical, sexual, psychological, property destruction and misuse of power. The physical battery involves grabbing, shaking, shoving, kicking, punching or pinching genital areas or forcing the person into a sexual act which they dislike. The psychological battery involves swearing or putting the other person down, which poses threat to her well-being when this occurs, the person is constantly reminded that ‘what happened once before can easily happen to you again’. The threats may involve the use of violence or controlling the other person by taking away things (such as custody of children, use of car). Destruction of property is another form of domestic violence. Objects which are emotionally important to the person are destroyed in other to show the potential destruction power the battery has over the person. According to the United Nations (1992) domestic violence otherwise referred to as wife battery may take the form of physical and sexual violations, such as punching, chocking, stabbing, scolding, burning with water, rape and acid bath or setting ablaze, the result of which can range from bruising to death. Oyekanmi (1997) in a manner Copelon (1994) admitted that domestic violence is a form of torture that takes the form of punching, kicking, beating, acid bath etc. Domestic violence therefore, is a pattern which develops over time. A man doesn’t stop violence by saying we won’t do it again. It becomes controlled only after a man learns about his challenges and his false beliefs about marriage and learns how to negotiate conflicts. 2.3 THE CAUSES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE There are so many causes of domestic violence in our society and so many reasons have been brought forward to explain the prevalence or the problem of this dirty act in our society. This according to Wanga (2004) include cultural perceptions, poverty, hunger, difficulties with sleep, menstrual cycle mood changes, feelings of frustration and inadequacy personality disorder, substance abuse (abuse of alcohol), brain tumour, head injury, personality changes and rarely mental retardation among others. Mojoyinola (2006) maintained that, domestic violence maybe a factor of individual intolerance, incompatibility, selfish approach to issues, immaturity, lack of moral standards or lack of fear of God. Other causes of domestic violence include failure to fulfill financial obligations to wife and children, poverty, denial of sexual intercourse, infidelity, disrespect and social vices. Cultural Perception Culture refers to the way of life of the people. According to Tylor, one of the fathers of modern Anthropology, culture is the complex whole of man’s acquisitions of knowledge, words, beliefs, acts, customs, technology etc. that are shared and transmitted from generation to generation (Tylor, 1967: 477). Culture varies within space and time, this implies that, it is not static but dynamic to suit the wishes of the dominant group in the society, it is essentially learned and shared. Most culture of the world has promoted wife battery or domestic violence and accepted it as a way of correcting or curtailing the excesses of woman. Courts (1992) reported that in some cultures domestic violence is regarded as good conduct, social gender conformity and culturally expected. The men batter their wives as a physical reprimand. The battery happens occasionally and causes the women no serious or permanent injury. Where such behaviour is customary, it is viewed as remarkable. For example in Papua New guinea, this has a pre-dominantly patrilineal culture, in which wives are socially, culturally and economically dependent on their husbands. Domestic violence most especially, the form of beating is common that it is seen as a formal part of married life (Davies, 1993). Also, in specific societies like Ranckand Toft certain level of family violence is considered to be normal (Ritchers, 1994). In Nigeria according to Okagbua (1996) domestic violence is both prevalent and persistent because, the society subscribes to twin philosophers, first that the wife is subordinate to her husband, and secondly, owing to the acceptance of a private/ public dichotomy which renders people homes and family life relatively immune to social controls, intervention and sanctions (Okagbue, 1996: 12). Domestic violence is thus regarded as a family problem to be settled in the privacy of the home. The question is how can the effects of this act be measured and remedied when it is kept out of public scrutiny. Among the Yoruba women of Nigeria, Iman (1989) stressed the demand of tradition on them to ensure the success of their marriage through submission to their husbands even if the husband beat them. This is not a different case in the Tiv society. The idea is not different. the men are considered to be the head and can at will violate or batter a woman as a form of correction and this sometimes leaves indelible marks on the victim. Then in cultures where such abuse is not considered acceptable, many individuals adopt it as a violent code of conduct. The irrational thinking of men in this regard is shocking. According to South African weekly mail and Guardian, a study in the cape peninsula found that the majority of men who claimed that they do not abuse their mates felt that hitting a woman was acceptable and that such does not constitute violence. Evidently, such a raped view often brings in childhood. In Britain for instance, a study shows that 75% of boys aged eleven and twelve feel that it is acceptable for a man to hit a woman if he is provoked (LEDAP, 2001) (Awake, 2001). Apart from cultural acceptability of domestic violence against women and children in most cultures of the world, there are other factors that lead to domestic violence in the society. Economic Factor (Poverty) The economic factor also plays a significant role in the cause of domestic violence in our society. The economic factor is a variable that encompasses poverty, lost of jobs, unemployment etc. In most societies, studies have revealed that, male violence against women is highly related to social stress such as poverty and economic loss (Steinetza, 1988, Abraham, 1995). LEDAP (2001) asserts that, the worsening economic situation in the country has led to lower standard of living, as most men are unable to provide for the family. The woman is left to take care of the home. In order to compensate for not contributing for the up keep of the family also to compensate for being tossed around in the office and prove that they are real men, most men resort to hitting the woman to stamp his mark of authority over the woman. According to Renvioze (1995) Stress and role frustration occasioned by economic and social disadvantage and underdevelopment through subsistence living induce violence. This explains why it is prevalent among rural dwellers who are mostly peasants. In Serbian village according to Richer (1994: 84) peasants and their wives alike consider domestic violence as the husband rights as head of the family. Also, writers have pointed out that, unemployment, poverty, inelastic income base, inflation and hunger affects the man’s sense of manhood thereby increase his propensity towards violence (Okpeh, 2002). It is also the observation of Okpeh (2002) that, the breakdown of economic network dismally affects the states of most men as bread winners of their families and the only way they demonstrate that they are still in charge of the family is to visit the wife with violence (Okpeh, 2002). Socialization Domestic violence is also influenced by what one experienced, learnt from the past, most of physically abused men were themselves raised in abusive manner/families. Domestic violence therefore is learned behaviour, in order words abusive husband who learned violence from his father or mother would probably pass it to his son (Strans et al, 1980) in light of the above, Abraham (1995) asserts that children learn violence behaviour when they see their parents or significant others resolving problems by violence. The children then model their role of violent interpersonal behaviour when they themselves become parents. According to Eyroetsch in Awake (2001) a male who is raised in such an environment can absorb his father’s contempt for women very early in life. This influence him as he grows up (LEADAP, 2001) (Awake, 2001) In African societies, men are particularly socialized to be aggressive, masculinity and girls to be caring and submissive as Antimo stressed, women are socialized to have feeble feelings, kindness, tenderness and there is institutional support in the family to underscore these roles. In a male dominated culture, such as Tiv, behaviour glorifying male superiority and manifest itself in the subjugation of women in all forms of domestic violence and in wife battery in particular. Therefore, there is social differentiation rooted in the predominate mode of socialization in society beginning from the elementary system as family to the school system, other agencies of social interaction for example, the church, social organization, government, all reinforcing the supremacy ideology that man is superior to woman. Children internalize the socialization and its impacts on them and this tends to influence their action during adulthood (Oyekanmi, 1997).   Substance Abuse Other factors such as intake of alcohol and drugs also induce violence in the family. Renvoize agrees with this view, in his research, he found that external factors such as alcohol and drugs influence domestic violence situation in the family (Renvoize, 1975). It has been observed that when men consume alcohol and drugs they are tensed up and any slight provocation or mistake results to violating of their wives. Sexual Factor Another reason for domestic violence is sometimes stem from the fact that, when the woman refuses the man’s sexual demands which are sometimes unreasonable, it results to the violence to show the woman that traditionally he is the head and can decide even in her sexual favours. It could also be observed that in her house, the father decides for her in marriage, the husband decides and when he dies the son decides for her. 2.4 THE IMPACT OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON WOMEN The fact that this act of domestic violence is anti-development, is very disputable. Francis (2005), Awoyemi (2005) and Ogunseye (2004). A monography from the National Clearing House on Domestic violence in the United States of America (1985) list some health problem suffered by some victims of domestic violence. This domestic violence has various negative effects ranging from physical to psychological well-being, these abused women therefore suffer from health and ramifications of her life-health, development and economic wise. Domestic violence limits a woman’s ability to participate effectively in the development of her country (Knapp, 2001). The implication of domestic violence on the victims is the fact that the victims are physically affected as it causes injuries like broken jaw, mouth, swollen faces or hands, broken hands, black eyes, broken spine which has left some women on wheel chairs. An example was given of a man and his wife staying at gyado villa in Makurdi metropolis who at the provocation of the wife hit her which resulted to spine broken and she ended up on a wheel chair. It is a major cause of disability and sometimes death. There is a recent case in the newspaper where the man beat the woman and left her disable with three children (27:05:2013) and a case of a bride been strangled to death after seven days of marriage in Kano State (12:06:2013). This can cause permanent injury and sometimes lead to death. Emotionally and psychologically it was noted that it raises the anxiety of women and also make them depressed and somatic. Economically, it saps women’s energy, makes them disabled such that they are not physically and emotionally fit to carry out socio-economic activities like trading, farming, academic programmes. Martins (1978) and Shwarts (1989) also suggested that one of the implications of wife battery or domestic violence is that, it undermines women’s confidence; the woman may lose herself confidence completely, comprises their health saps their energy therefore deprives society of woman’s full participation in both economic and social activities. It is believed that the society starts from a healthy family, a family that is destabilized by domestic violence will produce uncontrollable and immoral children who will become bad eggs and this will threaten the stability, safety and peace in the society. This will affect the society socially and economically, a society with high number of disabled women as a result to domestic violence will suffer economic setbacks, for women are the back bone in economic development in any given society. Domestic violence does not only entails suffering and ill-health for those directly involved, it also lead to major financial strains on society with regards to medical care, the judicial system, the social services, social insurances, unemployment, production loss, and so on. Therefore, domestic violence is an enormous. The most painful aspect of it is its tendency to affect not just the victims (women) but also extend its effects to all facets of the society. The implications of domestic violence are manifold and ranges from the victims themselves to the larger society. In the first place, it is an act of cowardice for a man to visit violence on a woman. It is morally indecent, quite uncivilized and of course in human and beyond acceptable standards of social relations. Many experts have cautioned against domestic violence against woman because it cause damages in diverse ways which includes miscarriages where the victim is pregnant and sometimes death where victims suffer tremendous physical damage to vital organs. Similarly, it is dangerous to abuse a woman in front of her children, because they have the propensity to internalise this behaviour which will manifest itself in later part of his life in the case of the female children, they may develop a negative feeling of the opposite sex which may make them even not to marry or be aggressive which predisposes them towards violence generally. For the society in general, violence against women and children has the potential to create disorder and chaos in the society, a society where general violence is the rule than the exception. This tendency could produce a generation of savages who cross gender relations is marked by bizarre violence. Also the children of such a society would be hyper-active in all ways not just in cross gender relations thereby making the society a violence prone with negative results. Unless the menace of domestic violence is controlled, societal growth and sustainable development would never be attained in our societies thereby paving ways from perpetual underdevelopment. 2.5 THE IMPACT OF RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN Religious affiliation no doubt plays significant roles on domestic violence against women and children in the society. Both Christianity and Islamic religions have over the decades preached women’s submission to their husbands in all ramifications. These however, gave men the impetus to ride or lord over women (Melliech, 2001). It is important to note here that, the religious bodies only states emphatically women’s submission to men and not to be violated by men. It is the misinterpretation of the doctrine that triggers domestic violence against women. Religious affiliation has also impacted on domestic violence against women and children, this is because its portrays some level of inequality between men and women by stating that women should be submissive to their husbands, this explains why the Islamic religion permits marrying of four wives (women) (Knapp, 2001). This is a clear indication that religious affiliations indirectly played a significant role in domestic violence against women and children as men are portrayed as heads and women and children as subordinates. The above scenario has unravelled the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence in the society. 2.6 MEASURES OF CONTROLLING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Despite the grievous implications of domestic violence on women and children in the society, a lot of efforts have been made by both the national and international bodies in combating the menace of domestic violence on women and children. According to Amaechi (2001), the legal strategies must be formulated and action taken as on of the most effective means of bringing domestic violence to an end. The criminal Justice System should therefore have a change of attitude towards the cases of domestic violence. Also according to “Walking Towards Gender Equality” (1993-1995) condoms there should be an elaborate awareness campaign to educate the general public on the evils of discriminatory practices, the aim of this campaign will be given men a new orientation so as to re-direct their attitude towards women on the basis of equality. Also will be sensitized and conscientized about their entitlement in life. This will remove ignorance on the part of women as to stop portraying themselves as being less than the men. Similarly, Benokaitis (1996) states that one of the measures of controlling domestic violence is the fact that, women should be sensitized to respect their husbands, show them love and respect and embrace their relations especially mother-in-laws. Also, there is a paper presented at National Workshop on “Domestic Violence against Women” in 2001 at Top Rank Hotel Abuja, which states clearly that cases of Domestic Violence should be made public so that it can be discussed and discouraged. It should be made public so that it could be treated as a social problem, women who felt ashamed of reporting such cases should come out boldly to defend their rights. 2.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The nature of social reality is so complex that, every social phenomenon is subjected to various analysis and interpretastions depending on which of the theoretical realm one falls. There are as many theories as there are phenomena. However, two dominant theoretical perspectives in sociology are examined. This helps to establish which of the theories suitably explain the social phenomenon under study. These are structural functionalism and conflict theory. 2.7.1 STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM The major proponents of this theory include August Comte, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons (Good, 1986). The functionalist theory argues that, for society to be in order, equilibrium or at peace, the institutions of the society which are interrelated and interdependent must work hand in hand to perform their roles. The functionalist views the family as the foundation of any society. It is the family that makes it possible for any society to raise the collective life and social order that sustains it. some of these functions can be performed by other institutions, but the family appears to perform them most effectively. These functions may include socialization, social placement, care and protection, emotional support, social control etc.   Limitations The main limitation of functionalist theory is that, it turns to stress the factors that had social cohesion at the expense of those producing division, conflict and change. The fact that functionalism is against change means that, it cannot explain domestic violence against women and children in the society. The functionalist have also been criticized on their ignorance as differing interest of the components and their members in the society that brings about conflict between them than the intended smooth running of society. Despite the above criticism, it can still be used to analyze the social phenomenon under study because it looks at the functions of the various organs of the social system to maintenance of a whole. 2.7.2 THE CONFLICT THEORY The conflict theorist assumes that the social institution do not benefit all members of the society. They argue that in the family, men have more power than the women because of the social and cultural construct of the society. On the other hand, parents have more power than the children. The conflict theorist sees conflict as endemic in the society and contends that, domestic violence should be seen in terms of dominance and control. It is one means by which men reinforce their power over women. Furthermore, the conflict theorist view family as a whole as a basic unit of inequality and exploitation and that the larger society only draws its legacy from the working of the family. Nevertheless, despite the obvious inequalities in domestic violence cases, victims of such assaults are often accused of provoking the abusive behaviours. In the case of domestic violence, the conflict theorists emphasizes that blaming the victim is but another reflection of man’s power over women. They further admit that, it is the dominance and exploitative nature of men in the family that leads to such conflicts as class struggle and domestic violence in the family. Marx’s collaborator, Engels (1884) noted that the beginning of domination of men over women in the early agrarian societies, when men conceived the need for ownership of property and to also pass it unto his offspring. This then prompted formal marriage which to men was upright ownership of the women as property. In a nutshell, conflict theorists sees conflict in positive light, they contend that in all societies conflict is inevitable i.e in avoidable, but it further brings about developmental change. Criticisms Many scholars argued against the conflict theory, that it is not all societies that conflict may bring or produce desired change. Also, the conflict theorists have been criticized on their position that inequality can only be over come by change to the socialist system of government. In this research work therefore, the researcher has adopted the conflict theory in explaining domestic violence against women and children and its social effects on the society. It is undoubtedly true that all socializations in families are based on cultural, traditional and customary norms which are reinforced by the parents. These cultural norms therefore set the men on top as the owners of the means of production, power and master which subsequently encourage domination and exploitation of women. This situation brings about abuse of women without the society frowning at it rather it is seen in positive light as a means of discipline and control. The incidence of domestic violence is an endemic occurrence in all societies. It is also perpetual through gross inequality and domination of the men folk, which almost all cultures inculcate in their younger ones, who continue the trend as they grow. But the conflict scholars propose a radical change from the economic system of capitalism, which they see as the only means by which class domination and exploitation can be terminated and exploitation can be terminated. The conflict theorists in their final analysis proposed the socialist system to be classless and ideal. Most importantly, the conflict theory notifies us of an impending problem of inequality and domination in the society that is inevitably experienced. This fact alone prepares the mind of the members of the society to brace for solutions to the problems of society especially domestic violence. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter deals with the methodology employed in the collection of data. Here, emphasis will be laid on the instrument of data collection, the study area, sampling procedure, the method of data analysis, field experience and problem encountered respectively. 3.2 STUDY AREA Vandeikya Local Government Area was carved out of the then Gboko division on the 28th August, 1976 by the then Head of State General Murtala Ramat Mohammed. This was done during the creation of the 19 States which saw Benue created out of the then Benue-Plateau. Vandeikya local government is located in the Southern part of Benue State. It shares boundaries with Cross-River State in the South, Ushongu local government area in the North, Kwande local government area in the East and Konshisha local government area in the West. The geographical spread of the local government area covers a land mass of about 1021 Km2. This location has placed the local government within the vegetational belt of Guinea Savannah which is a transitional zone between the Sahara Savannah in the North and the thick ram forest of the South East Zone. The local government area also experiences two distinctive climatic conditions. The dry and wet seasons. The dry season starts from late October and terminates in the mid April. And on the other hand, the wet season begins from the mid-April and terminates late October with average rainfall range of 60-70 inches per annum. Vandeikya like any other local government area in the State is completely rural with little or no infrastructural facilities. The inhabitants are predominantly farmers. The prevailing housing type is the traditional grass thatched round hut in a scattered settlement pattern with various degrees of urbanized villages, organized in a nuclear pattern. The local government area has a population of about 230,120. The male population is 114811 while the female population is made up of 115309, according to the 2006 population census. The population is divided into 12 administrative units called council wards. The population also has two (2) State constituencies viz- Kyan and Tiev constituencies. Kyan has six council wards which includes Mbakyaha, Mbagbam, Mbajor, Tsembe, Mbadede and Mbagbera while Tiev has Mbakange, Ningev, Mbayongo, Mbatyough, Nuuman-Mbagba and Township wards. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy in the local government with over 80% of the population directly employed in agricultural production. The main crops include Yam, Cassava, Palm produce, Guinea-Corn, Groundnut, rich and Livestock is relatively in small scale. In terms of commerce, the local government has two banks, First Bank and Kunav Community Bank. There are also major markets in the local government these are; Agbo, Ihugh, Tsar, Koti-Yough and Gbem markets, others are Agu, Agidi, Betse, Adeiongo, Anongu, Tortive and Mede. These markets provide outlets fro sale of agricultural produce. There are also high degree of external trade involving commodities like Garri, Rice, Cassava flour, Dry Yam flour, Soya beans, Groundnut and Oranges in these markets. It attracts traders from Jos, Kano, Calabar, Onitsha and Aba. There also exist on very significant scale business activities like Rice Milling, Blocks Making, Woodwork, Blacksmithing and retail shop holdings. There are also claims of mineral deposit such as Limestone, Kaolin, Natural Gas, Glass Sand, Zinc etc. Such minerals have not been exploited for the benefit of the people as such they remain in their latent form. The local government area is linked with the outside world through a trunk “A” Federal road which runs from Calabar through the local government to the Northern States of the country. Another road runs through Ihugh and terminates at Tse Mkar. These network of road made the local government area easily accessible. 3.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY Although the entire population of Vandeikya local government area is over 230,120 persons according to the 2006 population census, due to time and other resource constraints, only 180 respondents were randomly selected to represent the entire population. This population has been drawn from the council wards that form the clusters of this study. The population comprises of adult men, women and youths of the study area. 3.4 SAMPLING PROCEDURES This study employed cluster sampling procedures to select respondents. Cluster sampling has to do with the division of the total population into relatively small heterogenous groups known as clusters. For this reason, three groups were selected from Tiev constituencies respectively. Those selected in Kyan were from Mbakyaha, Tsambe and Mbadede, while those sampled in Tiev were Mbakaange, Ninger and Mbayongo. In each cluster 30 respondents were randomly selected to answer the questionnaires. A total of twelve (12) key informants were selected for interview, that is two (2) key informants were selected from each council ward, this makes up a total of twelve (12) key informants for the interview method. This segment of respondents is different from the questionnaire method. 3.5 QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUMENT This questionnaire comprises both closed ended and open ended questions which is divided into Section “A” and “B”. The closed ended questions captured questions that the researcher that have some knowledge of their options while the open ended questions were the ones more informations were needed to be obtained by the investigation. Section “A” bordered on the socio-demographic variables of respondents. These questions were intended to elicit on the Sex, Age, Occupation, Educational Qualification, Marital Status and Religion of respondents which were deemed relevant. Apart from the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, Section “B” sought to obtain detailed information on the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children is the area under study. The questionnaire was administered to the selected respondents in the selected council wards of Vandeikya local government area such as Tsambe, Mbadede, Mbakyaha, Mbakaange, Ningev and Mbayongo. Here 30 respondents were randomly selected, thus, a total of 180 respondents were selected to answer the questions in the questionnaires. The population comprise of adult men, women and youth of the area. 3.5.2 INTERVIEW INSTRUMENT The relevance of this technique to the study is to grant the researcher the opportunity to adjust, adopt and alter the questions so as to obtain more detailed information. The method avoids the chances of misinterpretation and misleading questions. Two (2) key informants from each cluster or council ward were selected. This brought the number of interviews to 12. This instrument also enabled the study to cross check the responses gathered through the questionnaires. The total key informants studied altogether is twelve (12) key informants. 3.6 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS The data collected will be analyzed with the use of both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Simple percentage tables will be used in analyzing the data. This is to take the percentage of the respondents that hold a particular view about the item/issues under study. A descriptive analysis will also be used, the combination of these two methods will give room for better inference and transformation of information to percentages which will facilitate statistical manipulation. 3.7 LIMITATION OF STUDY In the course of this study, certain problems were encountered. In all scientific researches especially those in the social sciences where emphasis is laid more on human behaviour, it is an inevitable situation. However, those limitations were tactically managed by the researcher in order to give this study its desired validity. There was a problem of apathy by some respondents to participate and contribute to the study by way of providing the needed information. Some felt insecure with any answer they gave. This was always solved through tactful explanation that their responses would be held with the strictest confidence and only for academic purposes. Another problem was the inability of the researcher to extend his interview to cover substantive parts of the study area due to inadequate time factor. Lastly, lack of finance was another limiting factor which posed a great challenge to the carrying out of this study. The inability of the researcher to mobilize adequate funds hindered him from getting in touch with all the nooks and crannies of the area under study. However, the above problems did not invalidate the result of the study because the researcher was able to select a representative sample that was adequately managed within the available recourses at his disposal. CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter is concerned with the presentation of data for the study essentially the demographic data as well as the general information on the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against woman and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. The data is presented in line with the objectives of the study. The presentation and analysis is based on one hundred and twenty (120) questionnaires that were returned out of the one hundred and eighty (180) questionnaires of the respondents. 4.1 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES OF RESPONDENTS In this section, various demographic variables of respondents deemed relevant were presented; these include sex, age, marital status, educational qualification, occupation and religious affiliation of respondents. Table 4.1: Sex Distribution of Respondents Sex Frequency Percentage (%) Male 45 37.5 Female 74 62.5 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 Table 4.1 above shows the sex distribution of respondents. The data shows that (37.50%) of the respondents were males while that of the female respondents were (62.59%). This indicates that the female were more represented than males, also, women are more prone to the practice of domestic violence than the male counter part therefore, and they are more willing to give information in order to tackle the phenomenon of domestic violence against women in the society. Table 4.2: Age Distribution of Respondents Age Frequency Percentage (%) 20-30 30 25.00 31-40 50 41.66 41-50 25 20.88 51 and, above 15 12.5 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 From the above table, (25%) of the respondents fall under the age category of 20-30, (41.66%) fall under the ages of 31-40 years, on the other hand (20.88%) of respondents belong to the age category of 41-50 years, while (12.5%) of the respondents fall under the category of 51 years and above. The implication of this findings shows that, the respondents that took part in this study are matured adults; therefore, they are knowledgeable and competent in giving information about domestic violence. Table 4.3: Occupational Distribution of Respondents Occupation Frequency Percentage (%) Farmer 45 37.5 Civil Servant 20 16.5 Business Man/Woman 13 10.83 Unemployed 15 12.5 Students 27 23.00 Total 120 100 Field Survey, 2013 The above table shows the occupational distribution of respondents. The data shows that (37.5%) of the respondents are farmers, (16.5%) are civil servants, also the data indicates that (10.88%) of the respondents and businessmen and women. The data went further to show that (12.5%) of the respondents are unemployed and are yet to be gainfully employed, while (23%) of the respondents are students. It is therefore, observed that majority of the people studied are farmers since the study is been carried out in rural areas.   Table 4.4: Educational Distribution of Respondents Educational Qualification Frequency Percentage (%) Primary 27 22.5 Secondary 45 37.5 Tertiary 18 15.00 Non-Formal Education 30 25.00 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The data above shows the educational qualification of the respondents, the data indicates that (22.5%) of the respondent have attained Primary school education and a significant number of respondents comprises of (37.5%) acquired Secondary education while a minority of (15%) of the respondents has tertiary education. On the other hand, (25%) of the respondents have Secondary education and are more than other categories, an indication that majority of the respondents acquired different forms of education and minority of the respondents are not formally educated.   Table 4.5: Religious Affiliation of Respondents Religion Frequency Percentage (%) Christianity 65 54.16 Islam 16 13.33 Traditional Religion 39 32.5 Others Specify 00 00 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The data from table 4.5 above shows the religious affiliation of respondents. The data indicates that (54.16%) of the respondents were Christians, whereas (13.33%) of the respondents were Muslims and (32.5%) of the respondents belong to Traditional religion. From the findings above, it is observed that Christians dominate the study area. Table 4.6 Marital Distribution of Respondents Marital Status Frequency Percentage (%) Single 42 35.00 Married 50 41.66 Divorced 15 16.00 Others Specify 09 7.5 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The above data from table 4.6 above shows the statistical distribution of respondents according to their marital status. The data indicates, that (35%) of the respondents were single, while (41.66%) of the respondents were married. On the other hand, (16%) of the respondents were divorced, while (7.5%) of the respondents belong to other category of marital status which include the widowed and widower. The findings show that, the married people participated more and they constitute majority of the respondents probably due to the fact that, they are more experienced in matters of marriage and domestic violence against women and children. Thus, there is a substantial difference in distribution of respondent’s marital status. 4.2 THE IMPACT OF RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN This section present data on the cause of domestic violence, the common pattern of domestic violence against women and children, the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence, the effects of domestic violence on women and children in the society as well as the ways of reducing domestic violence against women and children in the society.   Table 4.7: Causes of Domestic Violence against Women and Children Causes Frequency Percentage (%) Cultural/Religious Belief 32 26.66 Poverty 29 24.16 Socialization 13 10.83 Substance Abuse 23 19.16 And Sexual Matters 14 11.66 Others 09 7.5 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 From the data presented above, it is observed that (26.66%) of the respondents are of the opinion that cultural/religious belief have great influence on domestic violence against women and children (24.16%) of the respondents maintained that, domestic violence is caused by poverty, the data further reveals that, (10.83%) of the respondents held that socialization is the cause of domestic violence against women and children in the society. On the other hand, (19.16%) of the respondents blamed the incident of domestic violence against women and children on substance abuse such as alcohol and other hard drugs like marijuana. (11.66%) of the respondents attributed the cause of domestic violence to sexual advances often leads to domestic violence. (7.5%) of respondents maintained that domestic violence against women and children is caused by legion of other multi-dimensional actors such as infidelity, barrenness and impotency. From the fore-going, it could be inferred that, the basic cause of domestic violence in Vandeikya local government area is the cultural/religious beliefs of members of religious groups that domestic violence is a religious/cultural beliefs. This is revealed in nauty expressions like “Kwase ka abya, ka u ne tseougul u mande tso atema” (A woman is like a hoe that could only be strong when you hammer it), findings shows that, the major cause of domestic violence is cultural/religious beliefs. 4.3 THE COMMON PATTERN OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN VANDEIKYA Findings from oral interview and questionnaires have indicated that the common patterns among the people in Vandeikya local government area. It shows that domestic violence takes various patterns; it could be physical violence such as knocking, ear twisting and kicking etc. the above pattern actually tally with the observation of Griffiths (1985) who contended that physical battery involves, grabbing, shaking, shoving, kicking, punching, choking or striking with any object or weapon. According to him physical force is used to control the other person. Also, findings show that, verbal and emotional abuses are also patterns of domestic violence. This confirms with the daily Herald December 14, 1985’s observation that although verbal and emotional abuse may occur in psychological violence involving swearing or putting the other person down it also involves threats. Another pattern of domestic violence is the use of objects to cause harm on the woman like axe, cutlass, machete, throwing hot water on the woman, slashing their buttocks. This also coincide with Griffiths (1985) that domestic violence involves any forced sexual encounter with a person whether it involves touching, grabbing, pinching genital areas or forcing the person into sexual act which they dislike. This view however, tallies with one of the interviewee’s experience who said “my husband is always beating me whenever I refuse to have sex with him”. The above findings show the various patterns of domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. Table 4.8: Does Religious Affiliation Facilitate Domestic Violence Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Yes 50 41.66 No 40 37.5 Don’t know 25 20.88 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The table above shows the statistical representation of the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in the society. The data shows that (41.66%) of the respondents were of the opinion that women and children experience domestic violence because of the religion they practice. This is because in some societies religion has a great influence on the people and this is mostly common among those who practice the Islamic religion. (37.5%) of the respondents on the other hand do not see religion as a cause of domestic violence against woman and children, they see religion as a way of curbing promiscuity among woman and children and not violence. While (20.88%) of the respondents did not have what to say as to whether religion is a cause of domestic violence against women and children in the society. Table 4.9: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Marital Instability Effects Frequency Percentage (%) Disunity 60 50.00 Divorce 20 16.5 Infidelity 27 23.00 Others 13 10.83 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The above table shows the effects of domestic violence on marital instability. The data shows that, (50%) of the respondents were of the opinion that, domestic violence amount to disunity within the family, (16.5%) of the respondents said domestic violence facilitate the phenomenon of divorce, where as (23%) of respondents were of the view that domestic violence leads to infidelity among married couples within the family system thereby giving room for marital instability. While (10.83%) of the respondents said there are other effects of domestic violence in marital instability such effects include death of victims, psychological truma or emotional problems, injury on victims and many more. By implication, the findings revealed that there are numerous effects of domestic violence on marital instability, thus can be seen from the table above.   Table 4.10: The Effects of Domestic Violence on the Health of Women and Children Effects Frequency Percentage (%) Physical Injuries 30 25.00 Mental/Psychological Problems 45 37.5 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease 27 22.5 Others 18 15.00 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 Table 4.11 shows the effects of domestic violence on the health of women and children. The data indicates that, (25%) of the respondents were of the opinion that, domestic violence against woman and children amount to physical injuries, the study revealed that the act of violence affects the victim physically as it causes injuries like broken jaws, mouth, swollen faces/ hand, broken hand, black eyes, broken spine which has left some women and children on wheel chair and so many disabilities. (37.5%) of the respondents said domestic violence amount to mental or psychological problems, while (22.5%) of the respondents opined that, domestic violence causes pelvic inflammatory disease to victims most especially the women. (15%) of the respondents said there are other health effects of domestic violence against women and children in the society, such as HIV/AIDS, and other sexually transmitted infections. By implication, the findings revealed that majority of the opinion were of the view that domestic violence causes mental or psychological problems to women and children in the society. Table 4.11: Does Domestic Violence Affect the Growth and Development of Women and Children Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Yes 67 56.00 No 42 35.00 Don’t Know 11 9.16 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2013 The data from the above table shows (56%) of the respondents were of the opinion that, domestic violence affect the growth and development of women and children. This is because domestic violence prevents women from the attainment of roles in the society, since the society is patriarchal one, the man see women as inferior to them. It was also discovered in the course of the interview with one of the interviewees that, domestic violence against women has a significant effect on the children; this is because the children sometimes may lose confidence in their parent and psychologically feel sense devastation. Educationally, they lose concentration and it affects their academic work and consequently their career. Socially, they are humiliated before their peers and sometimes lose confidence in the whole scenario of marriage. While (35%) of the respondents rejected that, domestic violence does not prevent women and children growth and development in the society. On the other hand (19.16%) of the respondents are not certain whether domestic violence prevent women and children from attaining their growth and development in the society. 4.4 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The major objective of this study is to assess the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State as well as suggest possible ways of solving this problem. The data was collected, presented and analyzed in line with the above objective. As regards to the causes of domestic violence against women and children in the society, it was discovered that, cultural/religious beliefs, poverty, socialization, substance abuse, sexual matters, patriarchy and many others constitute the major causes of domestic violence against women and children. This is in line with the observation of Counts (1992) who states that, some cultures regards domestic violence as good as a good conduct of discipling the women and children to ensure conformity in the family. Similarly Oyekanmi (1997), Steinmetze (1998), Abraham (1995) variously enumerated the causes of domestic violence against women and children in the society such as religion, patriarchy, poverty, infidelity, barrenness/impotency, socialization, sexual matters, substance abuse as contained in the findings. The study also revealed the patterns of domestic violence against women and children in the society, it was discovered that verbal and emotional abuse are part of the patterns of domestic violence prevalent in the society, acid bath, use of objects to harm the victims, sexual assault such as rape were all established as patterns of domestic violence against women and children, threat and abuse was not left out. In respect to the examination of the effects of domestic violence against women and children in the society, it was discovered that domestic violence leads to disunity within the family system, it also amount to divorce and infidelity, other respondents were of the opinion that, domestic violence leads to death of victims and emotional problems. This coincides with the views of Renvoize (1995) who observed that domestic violence leads to conflicts and inequality in the family system. Furthermore, it was discovered that, domestic violence against women and children nullifies their growth and development. The long standing failure to protect and promote women and children’s right and freedom in the case of violence against women and children is a matter of concern to all states and should be addressed. On the impact of religions affiliation on domestic violence against women and children, it was discovered that, women and children experience domestic violence because of the religion they practiced, this is because in some societies religion has great influence on the people and this is most common among those who practice the Islamic religion. Therefore, it was discovered in this study that religion has a serious influence on domestic violence against women and children in the society since it affect marital instability, the health of women and children as well as the socio-economic growth and development of women and children.   CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 SUMMARY The study was undertaken to examine the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. They study further identified the causes and effects, as well as the common patterns and the possible ways of eliminating domestic violence against women and children in the society. In chapter two relevant literature and theoretical framework were reviewed. This covered the concept of domestic violence, the causes, effects as well as the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children were also reviewed as well as the measures of controlling domestic violence against women and children. The conflict theory was selected as a theoretical framework for the study. A total of 120 respondents were selected from six out of the twelve council wards that make up Vandeikya local government area. There were selected across gender, age, occupational and socio-economic backgrounds and investigated to find out the effects of religious affiliation on domestic violence in the society. Major findings from the study revealed that there are numerous causes of domestic violence such as socialization, cultural and religious beliefs, poverty, sexual matters, substance abuse and many others. The study also revealed that, the high incidence and patterns of domestic violence against women and children has caused untold hardship for Benue State women and these has negative consequences on the capacity of women and children to actively exhibit their potentials. The study also revealed that, domestic violence has serious health problems on women as it leads to HIV/AIDS, injury and inflammatory problems and sometimes even leads to mental disorder and even death. It also retards women’s development both economically and psychologically. The incidence of domestic violence is one of the major causes of marital instability in many homes. These impacts negatively on the society as it also affects the children of victim families which have the potentials of causing negative effects on the society as a whole 5.2 CONCLUSION Based on the findings, the study concludes that, religious affiliation has serious impact on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya L.G.A and the society at large. This is because in Vandeikya L.G.A, religion has great influence on the people. The people consider domestic violence as a way of instilling discipline and conformity. It is on this basis that there is need for recommendations in order to help find lasting solution to the problem of violence against women and children in the society. 5.3 RECOMMENDATION From the analysis of the opinion of respondents regarding the existence and effects of domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya local government area of Benue State. We hereby make the following recommendations to help eliminate or curb the ugly monster called domestic violence against women and children. It is therefore recommended that, the Ministry of Women Affairs, Culture and National Council of Traditional Rulers in conjunction with National Orientation Agency initiate a cultural reform bill which will repair our Customary Laws that regards women as property of men instead of partners in progress. Socializing agents such as churches, schools, parents etc. should make known to the people that marriage is an egalitarian relationship. The concept that man is the head of household and the sole bread winner for the family must be understood in a proper context. Also, the Federal, State and Local government should initiate programmes to alleviate poverty, concrete policies be made and well executed to reach the target of poor population and reduce unemployment rate. It is also recommended that organized private sector should create avenues to enlighten people on ways to be self dependent and employed to reduce their hardship. Government should make adequate provision of housing, medical care, open up education opportunities to raise the standard of living. It is also recommended that women should refuse their husband sex when demanded. Couples should express their sexual abilities without fear. It is also recommended that sex education should be introduced in the school curriculum in order to intimate people on the importance and dynamics of sex. Owing the fact that, domestic violence cannot be totally erased as some people feel most especially the victims, it is a way of correcting the women and children. Women are corrected through this means. It is therefore recommended that, the federal government and even private individuals should be encouraged to set up marital counseling units to help couples with marital problems. The above mentioned measures if adopted, implemented and supervised vigorously, it is believed and hoped that the Nigerian society will put to check this ugly monster and have women contributing their quota to the development of the Nigerian society.   References Abraham, M. (1998). “Ethnicity, Gender and Marital Violence” South Asian Women Organization in the U.S, in Gender and Society, Vol. 9. No 4. P5 Akpa, A and Angaha, D. (1991). Essentials of Research Methodology. Lagos: Aboki Publishers. Atsenuwa, A. U. (ed) (1995). Women’s Rights as Human Right: The Nigerian Experience. Lagos : Legal Research and Resource Development Centre. Awake (2001). “Why Do Men Batter Women”. Awake Magazine. November 8:PP: 5-7 Bart, B and Moran, E.G (1993). Violence against Women. The Bloody Foot Prints. London: Sage Benokaitis, M. (1996). Marriages and Families Changes, Choices and Constraints. New York: Prentice Hall. Carrillo, R. (1991). “Violence against Women”. A Development and Human Rights Issues, Centre for Women Global Leadership. New Brunsuick: Rugers University pp. 5-15. Counts, D.A. et al (ed) (1992). Sanctions and Sanctuary: Cultural Perspectives on the Beating of Wives. Boulder; West-View Press. Oluwanggu, O.T. (2004). “Prevention and Management of Domestic Violence”: Medical Point of View: A paper presented at a seminar organized by Centre for Youth, Family and the Law. New Bodiyo Estate Ibadan Nigeria. Geertz, C. (1995). The Interpretation of Cultures. London: Hutchinson and Company Limited. Handbook For Domestic Violence/Victims (1990). Illinois Coalition Against Domestic Violence: Springfield Illinois U.S.A Healt.http://www.who.int/violenceinquiryprevention/violence/worldreport/wrrwler. Haralambos, M and Holborn, H. (2006). “Sociology Themes and Perspectives” Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Meena, R. (1997). Gender Conflict: A Governance Issue: SAPEM, April. Pp. 26-27. Melliech, A. (2007). In Ephraim Oluwanuga, O.J (2004), “Prevention and Management of Domestic violence.” Medical Point of View. Ibadan. Mojuyinla, O. (2006). in Odunjirrn. O. (1993) Wife Battering in Nigeria. Inter. J. Gynecoli H(ed): 159-164. Oyekanmi, F. (ed) (1997). Men, Women and Violence (CODESRIA) Dakar, Senegal. Vii, pp. 14-29 Griffiths, K. (1985). Understanding Domestic violence, Daily Herald Column, December 14, 1985. Ritcher, A. (1994). Women, Culture and Violence: A Development, Health and Human Rights Issue, Leiden, Women and Autonomy Centre, 25. United Nations (UN) (1990). Strategies for Confronting Domestic Violence. A Resources Manual: New York Working Towards Gender Equality 1993-1995, London: Common Wealth secretariat. Okpeh, O.O .Jnr. (2000). Society and Violence against Women: An Analysis of Neglected Critical Aspect of Women Question in Nigeria: Aboki Press. Pp. 20-27. Payne, W. and Halom, D. (1998). Understanding Your Wealth: Fifth Edition, USA: The Mc Graw Hill Lay. Steirmetze, S.K. (1988). Family Violence, Past, Present and Future, in Handbook of Marriage and the Family. New York, Plenum Press.   QUESTIONNAIRE SECTION A: Socio Demographic Variables Instruction: Please tick the most appropriate in the box where questions are followed, elicit your response as deem appropriate. 1. Sex: Male ( ) Female ( ) 2. Age: 20-30 ( ) 31-40 ( ) 41-50 ( ) 51 and above ( ) 3. Occupation: Famer ( ) Civil Servant ( ) Businessman ( ) Unemployed ( ) 4. Educational Qualification: Primary ( ) Secondary ( ) Tertiary ( ) Non-Formal Education ( ) 5. Religion: Christianity ( ) Islam ( ) Traditional ( ) Others Specify ( ) 6. Marital Status: Single ( ) Married ( ) Divorced ( ) Others Specify ( ) SECTION B: The Causes of Domestic Violence 7. Are you aware of domestic violence? Yes ( ) No ( ) 8. How prevalent is the problem of domestic violence in your area? a. Very High ( ) b. High c. Low ( ) d. Very Low ( ) e. Non-existence ( ) 9. What are the forms of domestic violence that are prevalent in the area? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 10. What are the causes of domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya? ........................................................................................ ........................................................................................ ........................................................................................ 11. In what ways does poverty influence domestic violence against women and children? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 12. Are children brought up in families where domestic violence is prevalent more likely to practice it? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 13. Which of the following form(s) of domestic violence against women can be found in Vandeikya? a. Wife beating and battering ( ) b. Threat and Abuse ( ) c. Sexual Assault ( ) d. Acid Bath ( ) e. All of the above ( )   14. What are the impact of religious affiliation on domestic violence against women and children in Vandeikya? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 15. Which of the following religious affiliation do you belong to ? a. Christianity ( ) b. Islam ( ) c. Traditional Religion ( ) 16. How does Christianity influence domestic violence against women and children in the area? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 17. What is the impact of Islamic religion on domestic violence against women and children? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... .........................................................................................   18. Does Traditional religion contribute towards domestic violence against women and children? Yes ( ) No ( ) 19. What is the impact of Traditional religion in perpetrating domestic violence against women and children? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 20. What are the effects of domestic violence on marital instability ? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 21. How does domestic violence affects the health of women and children? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 22. What are the effects of domestic violence on growth and development of women and children? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... 23. In your own opinion, what can be done to curb domestic violence against women and children in our society? ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... .........................................................................................

An Assessment of the Socio-Economic Challenges of the Aged

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHALLENGES OF THE AGED IN MAKURDI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF BENUE STATE. BY JACOB YOL 08123463845 MARCH, 2014   TABLE OF CONTENT Title Page…………………………………………………………………. i Table of Contents………………..…………………………………… ..ii List of Tables…………………...………………………………………. iii Abstract…………………………………………………………………. iv CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………….…. 1 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem……………………..….. 3 1.3 Research Questions………………………………………...…… 4 1.4 Objective of the Study…………………………………….…….. 5 1.5 Significance of the Study…………………………….…………. 5 1.6 Scope of the Study……………………………………….……….. 6 1.7 Definition of Terms……………………………………….………. 7 CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review 2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………… 8 2.2 The Concept of Aging…………….………………………..……. 8 2.3 Factors that Facilitate Aging.…………………………….…… 11 2.4 Importance of the Aged in the Society…………...……….... 15 2.5 The Socio-economic Challenges of the Aged..………….. …18 2.6 Efforts Towards Combating the Socio-economic Challenges of the Aged……………………………………………………………… 23 2.7 Theoretical Framework………………………….……………. 26 2.7.1 Conflict Theory……………….……………………………….…27 2.7.2 Modernization Theory……..…………..……..……………… 28 CHAPTER THREE: Methodology 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………….. 34 3.2 Study Area………………………………………………………. 34 3.3 Sampling Technique……………………..……..………….… 37 3.4 Instrument of Data Collection…….……………………….. 39 3.5 Method of Data Analysis…..………………………………... 39 CHAPTER FOUR: Data Presentation and Analysis 4.0 Introduction……………..……………………………………… 41 4.1 Socio-Demographic Data of Respondents………………... 34 4.2 The Socio-economic Challenge of the Aged..…………….. 46 4.3 Discussion of Findings…………………..…………………... 49 CHAPTER FIVE: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 Introduction……………………………………………………… 52 5.2 Summary…………………………………………………………. 52 5.3 Conclusion……………………………………………………….. 53 5.4 Recommendation……………………………………………….. 54   LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Sex Distribution of Respondents Table 4.2: Marital Status of Respondents Table 4.3: Age Distribution of Respondents Table 4.4: Educational Distribution of Respondents Table 4.5: Occupation of Respondents Table 4.6: Religious Distribution of Respondents Table 4.7: Respondents View on the Social Challenges of the Aged Table 4.8: Respondents View on the Economic Challenges of The Aged   ABSTRACT This research is set to assess the socio-economic challenges of the aged in Makurdi metropolis of Benue State. The major objectives of the study include; to assess the socio-economic challenges of the aged in Makurdi town as well as to suggest ways of solving the problems of the aged in the society. The study employed descriptive survey design and data was collected using questionnaires and interview methods. Questionnaires were distributed to a total sample of 120 respondents which were selected for the study using random sampling technique. The findings show’s that discrimination of the aged is the major socio-economic challenge facing the aged in Makurdi metropolis. The study also revealed that, there are many other economic challenges of the aged which include high standard of living, unemployment and high rate of inflation. It is therefore, recommended that, awareness campaigns and sensitization programs about the importance of the knowledge of the aged which is vital for societal development. Since they are the custodians of the customs and traditions in the society, moreso, there should be change in the attitude about the belief of the old people in the society, since there are misconceptions about the old in the society. In addition, the general society should have for a for the discussions on the importance of the old, such for a should emphasize on necessary policies and programs that will improve the lives of the old so as to enhance their maximum participation in the development and growth of the society. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY The ideas of age and aging are often seen in biological and psychological terms. Birth, developing to physical maturity, aging and death are part of universal biological processes which affect all human beings. These processes are linked to the psychological development of individuals. The significance of aging is largely social. Although physical changes are associated with aging such as declining eyesight, greying hair, have little significance except as they relate to what is expected of people in the society (Robert, 1997). The phenomenon of aging can be fully understood through the lens of social context. Just as race and sex were once seen in purely biological/psychological terms but are now viewed sociologically through concepts such as ethnicity and gender, age can also be seen in sociological terms. From this perspective, age can be seen as part of social construction (Giddens, 2006). Old age varies from society to society. In some traditional societies, the elderly are revered for their wisdom and have high social status and considerable power. As Giddens (2006) points out, this has traditionally been the case in China and Japan. However, Giddens notes that in contemporary societies the elderly tend to be seen as non-productive, dependent people who are out of step with the times. On the other hand, youth is valued to such an extent that a fortune is spent on attempts by individuals to make themselves appear or feel younger (Giddens, 2006). Growing old therefore, affects everyone because nearly everyone has the potential to grow old and all the groups in which we live have older members. Aging has always been part of human life. The significance of aging is often defined socially. Aging not only affects what people are capable of doing but it also influences what they are expected to do, allowed to do or prohibited from doing (Robert, 1997). However, due to the variations in the meaning of age in different societies, Giddens argues that sociologists should analyse age from the social context rather than the chronological or biological age. By social context, he means the norms, values and roles that are culturally associated with a particular chronological age. The idea of social age differs from one society to another (Giddens, 2006). Age is not just of sociological importance because its meaning varies from society to society, but also because it is an aspect of social stratification. The status and power of the elderly vary between societies. However, all types of inequality can be shaped by age. John (2006) notes that the roles and norms that society allocates to age groups creates barriers and opportunities. These barriers and opportunities affect the status, power, wealth and income enjoyed by different age groups in each society. It is from the foregoing that the researcher intends to carry out a study in order to unravel the socioeconomic challenges faced by the old (aged) in the society with emphasis on Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State, with a view of according some possible recommendations in order to improve on the lives of the old people in the society. 1.2 Statement of Research Problem The phenomenon of aging and its socioeconomic challenges has widened the gap between the youth, adult and the old (aged) people in the families and society at large. The discrimination and neglecting against the aged has become a tremendous social problem in the society. The issue of age therefore is a complex phenomenon, this is because, a person’s age constantly undergoes changes which affects the person’s roles in the society, thereby affecting the person’s social and economic life. It is in the light of the above that the researcher deemed it pertinent to undertake a study on the socioeconomic challenges of the aged, with a view of suggesting appropriate measures to forestall the socioeconomic challenges faced by the aged in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State and beyond. 1.3 Research Questions The study intends to investigate and proffer solutions to the following questions: i. What are the social challenges of the aged? ii. What are the economic challenges of the aged in the society? iii. What are the possible ways of addressing the socioeconomic problems of the aged? 1.4 Objectives of the Study The general objective of this study is to examine the socio-economic challenges of the aged in the society with particular reference to Makurdi local government area of Benue State. Other specific objectives include; i. To examine the social challenges of the aged is the society. ii. To assess the economic challenges of the aged in the society. iii. To proffer possible solutions and recommendations that would help reduce drastically the socio-economic challenges of the aged in the society. 1.5 Significance of the Study The content or information gathered in this study will serve as a reservoir of knowledge for researchers within similar field of study, that is, it will contribute to already existing literature and it will enable the society to know more about the socio-economic challenges of the aged in the society. Also, the study will help the general populace in knowing the news and perceptions of the government functionaries and they will help in proffering solutions to the socio-economic challenges of the aged in the society. Furthermore, policy makers and formulation will find the study relevant in formulating policies and programmes that will help improve the socio-economic conditions of the aged in the society in order to empower the aged to be functional in the society. Finally, the study will open up another area of research in sociology where other scholars can take off from i.e social gerontology which is the scientific study of the aged in the society. 1.6 Scope of the Study The study set out to investigate the socio-economic challenges of the aged in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State. However, since not all localities in Benue State are accessible to this research and also time factor, Makurdi Local Government Area shall be the specific area to be studied. The study covers the period when there was a shift from agrarian to industrialization (i.e. modernity) when white collar job became fully operational in Nigeria since independence that is 1960 to 2013. 1.7 Definition of Terms Aging: Aging have been seen as a developmental and continuous process of change in the individual from conception to death, Oluwabamide (2002) defined aging as a process of biological, psychological and social process that affect people as they grow older. Atchley (1980) sees aging as that which includes physical changes that occur in our body over adult life. Social Challenges: Social challenges can be understood as nothing but the state of social disequilibrium in which the smooth functioning of various parts of society gets disturbed. According to Aurkheim (1959) social challenges refers to a state of disequilibrium and a lack of social solidarity or consensus among the members of a society. Economic Challenges: Economic challenges can be seen as inequality that exists in the course of economic productions, it is also referred to as the disequilibrium that exists in the distribution of material resources. When the economic resources fail to go round equitably then economic challenges is said to have been taken place (Smelser, 1999).   CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, various views held by some scholars relating to the study will be reviewed. Among the areas to be reviewed include the clarification of the concept of aging; factors that facilitate aging, the importance of the aged will also be reviewed. Most importantly, the socio-economic challenges faced by the aged in the society will be vigorously reviewed and efforts towards combating these challenges will also be explained. Theoretical framework relating to the study will be examined. 2.2 THE CONCEPT OF AGING The process of aging is complex and includes biological, psychological, sociological and behavioural changes. Aging have been seen as a developmental and continuous process of change in the individual from conception to death. Oluwabamide (2002) defined aging as a process of biological, psychological and social process that affect people, as they grow older. Biologically, the body gradually loses the ability to renew itself. Various body functions begin to slow down and the vital senses become less acute. Psychologically, aging persons experience changing sensory processes: perception, motor skills, problem-solving ability, drives and emotions are frequently altered. Sociologically, they must cope with the changing roles and definitions of self that society imposes on the individual. For instance, the role expectations and the status of grand parents are different from those of parents and the roles of the retired are quite different from those of the employed. Being defined as ‘old’ may be desirable or undesirable, depending on the particular culture and values. Behaviourally, aging individuals may move slower and with dexterity. Because they are assuming new roles and are viewed differently by others, their attitude about themselves, their emotions and ultimately their behaviours can be expected to change. An individual’s age therefore is important only because it provides clues to his or her behaviour at a particular phase of the life cycle, be it childhood, adolescence, adulthood, middle age or old age. Atchley (1985) also see aging as that which includes physical changes that occur in our body over adult life. Psychological changes in our minds and mental capabilities and social changes in how we are viewed, what we can expect. From the above definition, aging involves three aspect i.e. physical, biological, psychological and social/cultural aspect. Physical aspect here is seen in terms of body posture, hair colour, voice and ability to see and hear. Mobito (2002) noted that, physical aging refers to body maturation or period obviously biological and psychological changes in the individual overtime. This refers to visible aspect of the physical aging process. Biological aspect indicates a person’s level of development and physical health. Human life consists of when it developed, matured and aging in which the person gradually diminished. Psychological aspect considers the process of aging. This refers to a development stage in the individual personality, the identity, the generative illness or death of a relation or close friend of the same age is likely to affect someone’s emotion and increase pain, it can be a social pain, psychological pain etc. The concern here is the individual aging perception of the process of mental relatives to the process. An examination of psychological passage to time in adulthood has shown that, some diminish in aging, some increase while some remain relatively constant. For example, the increasing aspect of reasoning, experience, constant aspect is that, some character of some people usually remains constant in them no matter their age, while the diminishing aspect is that sight diminishes as human/individual gets old, Social and cultural has been indicated that aging relate to experience in the course of life and the manner in which the person relate his aging to the society. Social aspect is also gagged by social roles. Aging therefore, is a broad concept that includes physical changes in our bodies, over adult life, psychological changes in our minds and mental capabilities, psychological changes in what we think and believe and social changes in how we are viewed, what we can expect and what is expected of us. Therefore, the aspect of aging this work shall adopt is the social aspect of aging, this aspect of aging is related to experience in the course of life and the manner in which the person relate his aging to the society. This entails whether in the course of aging, the person is faced with socio—economic challenges as a result of what the society expects of him/her or what he/she expects of the society. The social aspect of aging is therefore, the concern of this study. Although part of other aspect of aging will be considered. Aging has become a visible social problem that is why the social aspect is the basic concern of this study. 2.3 FACTORS THAT FACILITATES AGING The rate of aging varies from person to person; various social, bio-chemical, medical, economic, psychological, cultural and dietary factors tend to influence the rate of aging. Emphasis will be on the psycho-social, economic and biological reasons that influence our aging. Natural or Biological Factors: Chronologically, it is natural for on individual to be at 0 age or evolve at infancy grow from infancy to childhood, childhood to adulthood and adolescent to youthful age, adult age to old age. Old age therefore, is a natural phenomenon; it is a normal physiological process that is inevitable, aging process is biological i.e. from conception to death. Social Factors: Social status, social roles can cause an individual to age very fast. Denga (1993) observed that among the rural agrarian communities, particularly in Africa. Social and economic pressures may accelerate a child’s maturity because of the compelling need for him to assume adult responsibilities. Denga adds that a child who has start work early in order to serve as a financial tower of a poor family is thus raised into maturity and may start wearing the appearance of a full adult too soon. Chronologically, the child is still young but by acting out roles of an adult too early, the burdens of on adult may trigger the child info old age. Some forms of social participation may accelerate the aging process. Young people, who indulge heavily into bad habits like excessive alcoholism, unrestrained sexual activities, smoking and other social orgies, may run down their vitality, thus rendering them vitiated and emasculated rather early in life. The massive expenditure of body substance through reckless social activities may lead to premature aging. Economic Factor: An era of economic downturn may accelerate aging as people are over stretching themselves inordinately to unimaginable limits to make ends meet. Citizens who over work engage in over time in order to improve their economic standing tend to become rather spent, sick from time to time, depressed, weary and burnt-out. This however leads to aging by the individual. Economic austerity has a lot to do with inability to seek dependable medical care. Poor people generally look older than their actual age. This is because a lack of basic wants is capable of unleashing social, psychological and medical problems. These problems acting conjointly may accelerate aging (Denga, 1993). Psychological Factor: One of the effective ways of fighting the chronological age is to resolve to be young at heart. Some 60 years old person may deliberately and consciously decide to take things easy, to challenge their fate and too refuse to lie down in the face of serious trails, temptations and tribulations. Such people shun sadism. They perceive life as full of prospects, possibilities and promises. They exhibit an enormous sense of humour, they may be old but they behave like young people (Denga, 1993). One of the ways to grow old fast is to drift into sadism which manifest in wrinkles on the face and internal combustion in addition to a sole run, sober and melancholic look most of the time, feelings of anger, aggression, irritation, hate, rejection and detection on emotional over load. A protracted experience of these may accelerate aging. Physiological Factor: Lack of physical exercise may lead to over weight and a general lack of physical fitness, inactiveness tends to obstruct or hinder free circulation of blood from the heart. This can create opportunities for a heart related diseases and other physical disabilities. A young person who is idle or lazy or fails to exercise is likely to assume the look of a much older person. A healthy person is fit to combat aging and general degeneration than a lazy one. Dietary Habits: If people over indulge in eating food items that do not nourish the body. They stand a good chance of looking bad, aging faster and losing vitality. “Junk Food’ does not nourish the body. It makes a person vulnerable to diseases and consequently renders the body emasculated or vitiated. It is therefore, logical to state that an unbalanced or poor diet accelerates aging also alcoholic beverages affects the liver, which is the body powerhouse and renders it weak and diseased. In many cases, cancer of the liver is associated with alcoholism. A general deterioration of health can unleash several problems for the body including aging. Medical Factor: Good medical care can slow down aging process. Inadequate medical health couple with low standard of living in our society can make people vulnerable to various illnesses or diseased that accelerates the aging process. Children and adult are still faced with life shortening diseases such as kidney diseases, diabetes, mellitus, tuberculosis, pneumonia among many other diseases that tend to affect the people of Makurdi Local Government Area; these disease trigger aging among the people. It must also be reiterated that our social habits, dietary habits, physical bearing activities and physiological make-up may jointly trigger ill health quite capable of shortening our life span. Everything from income and diet to occupation and bad habits can move people off the average curve. This is because our poor and uninsured pollutions have only minimal health care and can easily succumb to diseases sooner than average. 2.4 IMPORTANCE OF THE AGED (ELDERLY) IN THE SOCIETY In traditional societies, the older people were accorded great respect, they usually have a final say over matters of importance in the community as a whole and even the family. The authority of the elderly often increase in age, the elderly plays significant cultural roles for the development of the society. Some of the roles include the following: The aged (elderly) plays advisory roles, they serve as advisers to the younger members of the family, the play these roles through counseling and guiding the younger ones, young people seek advices on marriage, burial, economy, coronations, political and economic issues. The elderly are mostly associated with evil acts. The main responsibility of the elderly is to maintain the welfare of all the people by mediating with the gods. Cottrell (1960) asserts that in traditional societies the elders are heads of families and communities who made decisions in all realms of life: economic, politics, religion and social. According to Cottrell, the power of the aged (elderly) men and occasionally aged (elderly) women in the agrarian system stemmed from their positions as heads of which in turn admitted them top the council of elders that ran the affairs of the community. Tradition was the main way that people decided issues in agrarian societies, which elders were ranked as keepers of knowledge and tradition, with these roles given to the elders by tradition as a result of their age, the serve as advisers to the families and the entire community. Furthermore, the elders (aged) perform integrating roles: they sustain social relationship at individual, family, group and societal level. They act as agents of socialization; they serve as conflict managers, through conflict management and resolution for example, in traditional African societies where there are always issues of land disputes, the elders play vital of integrating and resolving such land disputes and other communal crises Manman (1998). Hann (1966) maintained that, the elders play vital roles in politics. The political roles of the elderly are due to the knowledge and experience they are appointed or elected, exclusively to the people, they constitute an effective body in decision making. In addition, tradition was the main way that people decided issues in agrarian societies, which elders (aged) value as keepers of knowledge and tradition. Therefore, as a result of their long-lived experience they are mandated by tradition to play the political roles by making decisions on behalf of the communities. Another importance of the aged in the society is the transmission of skills to the young ones, most of the traditional craft such as blacksmithing, woodwork, basket weaving and cloth weaving (Denga, 1993). Therefore, the aged play the role of skills to the younger generation. Also, the aged served as intermediate between members of the family, communities and the supernatural, they serve as priest in traditional religion, and they help to appease the gods on issues affecting both communities the make sacrifices to the gods on behalf of the communities (Udoh, 2005). The aged therefore, play religious functions in the society. Oxpede (1998) observed that, the aged (elderly) preserve and maintain cultural values through socialization, they frown at attitudes that contra vain traditional norms. The aged serve as agents of socialization by inculcating in the young ones the norms and values of the society, this is also as a result of their long-lived experience and they acquire the knowledge from their fore fathers. The aged served as a social and moral background, this is as a result of their accumulated wisdom over the years, and they inculcate moral values and spiritual support to the young ones to fake after their footsteps when they have gone. Therefore, the importance of the aged in the society ranges from moral to spiritual support, although other aspects of supports also are involved that is, economic and social support (Cole, 1992). One community role that seems to be increasing in prevalence among the older people is that of mediator. In the past decades, many communities have come to realize that the peaceful resolution of interpersonal and inter group disputes is a major need. The mediation process involves bringing the disputing parties together, the aged play this role by resolving dispute between two conflicting parties. By so doing he/she (aged) help the two warring parties identify the underlying issues involved and generate solutions that will genuinely resolve the dispute. Therefore, the aged served as mediator in resolving issues in communities (Becker, 1994). 2.5 THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHALLENGES OF THE AGED (ELDERLY) In spite of the important roles played by the aged in ensuring stability in the society, the aged are faced with numerous challenges, this is as a result of the changes brought about by modernization. Modernization brought about changes in attitudes towards the elderly (aged) in the society. Growing older does not remove the importance of the social status characteristics, modernization has brought about changes in structure and social economic function of the family, the impact of modernization in the cultural roles privileges of the elderly cannot be over emphasized. However, there are numerous socioeconomic challenges faced by the aged in the society. The access to knowledge through western education has led to the reduction in the power and privileges given to the accumulated wisdom of the elderly, their knowledge and experience are seen as not directly relevant to the problems of the modern age. (Cowgill, 1972), maintained that rapid social change and child-centered education outside the family made obsolete much of the knowledge that had formerly been a foundation of esteem of elders. Furthermore, the direct linkage of educational attainment with occupational and income has altered the economic status of the elderly. This is because, for one to attain certain position in the country, you must be educated and economically buoyant. Therefore, western education has altered the change in economic status of the aged since, so much value is been attached to knowledge acquisition and white-collar jobs are more regarded than farming in the present day societies. Also the geographical mobility brought about by the white-collar jobs, has resulted into fractioning of the extended family system. This is why you find elderly people in the rural areas. The interdependency marked by extended family is been replaced by emphasis in the autonomy of nuclear family because of the effects of modernization; people don’t see the extended family as normal as these results to insults of the people considered to belong to the extended family. In a similar vein, the mutual obligations of the extended family system are systematically eroded by the increasing emphasis on material success and individuality. In the extended family it is the obligation of the extended to take care of others, but due to modernization people care about the aged (elderly) because they are not in the same family with them. This has resulted into individualism, which is mostly found in the nuclear family. As a result of this, younger adults who are urban based think less of caring for the elderly who are not their direct parents. Old age minimize a person’s social and economic opportunities. It has been pointed out that old age may bring out social isolation. A decline in the physical energy may cause economic activities to diminish since an old person cannot actively pursue economic activities with the same resilience that a young person can do. For example, some 60 years old persons may be intellectual authors of many economic ideas, but they may lack the energy and vigour to pursue these ideas physically. It is thus disturbing when one’s spirit is very much willing to pursue activities but one’s body is rather weak to change. Denga et al (2005). Denga et al (2005) asserts that, old age used to be a thing of joy in Africa sub-cultures. An old man used to lightly respect and obeyed almost like God, he was almost always surrounded by his grand children and other people within his community who would always take presents to him and also problems for him to use his fountain wisdom to resolve. His gray hair was revered and cherished by young men. Things are different now, old people are in many cases isolated, considered to be a burden and in some cases a source of witchcraft. The Nigerian society has become so youth oriented that the aged has lost its fascination. The increasing urbanization and emphasis on the nuclear family set-up have worsened the issue of isolation. The aged fit the context of rural environment more than the urban environment where the way of life and the nature of environment offer little familiarity to the aged by their children who espouse nuclear family set-up like Christmas, Easter and Burial occasion. The aged therefore, tend to be burnished to the rural areas unless of course that the extended family around them may at times help reduce the effect of isolation. In selecting employees in an age of technology manager is always faced with the problem of screening applicants so that only those who stand a reasonable chance of filling the bill will be seriously considered. The theory of aging has inevitable decline its damage by identifying older workers as a category that justifiably could be ruled out for hiring and singled out for firing and lay off. The aged are discriminated against in highly sophisticated areas of industrial technology, this is as a result of their decline in their sensitive organs like eyesight, hearing, physical strength etc. which make them incapacitated (Haber, 1983). The aged are faced with numerous challenges, one of such is as a result of high rate of inflation and high cost of living which has handicapped willing members from caring for the old people this is because, the huge finance that is needed for catering for the aged. the ways by which the aged are cared, care include; good health care delivery, taking them to rehabilitation centres for care and counseling, this involves professional social workers, however, the finance that is needed for care for the aged through these medium is high thereby making it difficult for adult members of the society to care for the aged (old). In a nutshell, high cost of living affects the proper care for the aged in the society (Denga, 2005). Psychologically, the aged get scared because of a possible isolation from young people. Some rough youths often make feelings hurt by talking about age and calling old people names, denigrating them whenever disagreements occur between them. The loss of self- esteem and personal ego comes in. The feeling of self-worth and sense of belonging begin to erode. Also, the feeling of nostalgia comes in when an aging person remembers what great things he used to do with his youth. The sense of psychological loss tends to exacerbate the fear of getting old. There is a need for counseling those who dread the psychological loss through aging (Denga et al., 2005). The aged are physically weak generally. The physical strength of a 50 years old person is relatively less than the person’s physical; strength when he was 30 or 40 years old. The decline in physical energy becomes critical when the tasks requiring physical stamina are to be performed. For example a farmer who engaged in farming activities when he was 40 cannot do the same at the age of 65. This is because the feeling is always nostalgic. It is clear therefore, that aging separates people from what used to be cherished during their youth. By and large, the aged (elderly) performed some numerous roles to ensure continuity and stability of the society through socialization of the young ones and serving as a societal heads in terms of decision making. Inspite of their contribution they are faced with numerous challenges which make them incapacitated and this has some socioeconomic and cultural implications on the aged such that, increasing member of the people now see old age as an age increasing tension and insecurity e.g. discrimination, lack of institutional social security and arrangement has subjected the elderly to difficult existence or living. Also, the neglect or reduction in respect for the elderly is cutting them off in participating in important activities in the society such as settlement of land dispute, which would have been as a result of long- lived experience. The aged (elderly) therefore, are faced with a lot of socio-economic and cultural challenges inspite of their contribution to the society, these challenges leads to serious implication to the aged and the society at large. 2.6 EFFORTS TOWARDS COMBATING THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHALLENGES OF THE AGED As earlier noted, the aged (elderly) have over time borne the brunt of challenges that make them incapacitated and dysfunctional in the society, this challenges cuts across, social, economic, physical and cultural lines. This challenges being recognized as an ill in the society has received attention from different quarters and efforts has been put in place to combat and improve these challenges. Bansell (1956) asserts that, good health is a major factor enabling people to enjoy life. Older people are not seriously limited by illness or disability. But aging does not increase the proportion of people who have chronic disease that require effective management. Adequate health care can enable older people to maintain good health and avoid worsening health. Preventive health care can reduce the probability of chronic and disability; treatment can often reverse negative effects of chronic disease and rehabilitation can help people restore lost functions. Therefore, through good health care, the conditions of the aged can be improved to make them functional to meet the modern day challenges such as the socio-economic and cultural challenges. Another effort towards combating the challenges of the aged is by “long- term care”. This is the provision of ongoing assistance to people with chronic illness or disabilities in a wide variety of settings by a wide variety of types of caregivers. Some of this assistance may require health care and may be provided in nursing homes. But most long-term care consists of personal care provided in the persons independent household, most often by family members. The aged are those who are weak physically and incapacitated, therefore they need long-term care to keep them going. This long-term are mostly provided by family members, family members are a major source of personal care for older people (Robin and Stockton, 1987). At the international level, several programmes have been put in place to improve the socio-economic conditions of the aged to make them functional and useful to the society, such as Elderly Abuse Program”. This program is aimed at fighting against the abuse of elders (aged) by improving the conditions of the aged by educating them, through guidance and counselling to meet up the modern day challenges. For example, the 1973 United Nations comprehensive senile created a new community organization. The Area Agency on Aging (AAA) along with significant increases in federal funds for local programmes for the aged (elderly), such programmes like counseling units, hospital programmes, educational programmes to improve the level of the aged. At the National level too, (Nigeria) there have been much efforts towards combating the socio-economic challenges of the aged. The Nigerian government, individuals and cooperate organization such as social work organization, have come to understanding the intricacies of the socio-economic challenges of the aged and as such have rationalized efforts towards combating it. This effort takes the form of creation of awareness in caring for the aged through seriousness and workshops and educating the aged to meet the modern day challenges. All these have been some of the efforts made towards combating the socio-economic challenges faced by the aged in Makurdi Local Government of Benue State and the society at large. At the State level, (Benue State), there have been efforts towards combating the socio-economic challenges of the aged here, in Benue State; the efforts towards combating this menace have been through seminars and workshops where papers are often presented about the challenges of the aged in the society. The State government also has been a major partner in try to curb this menace by providing relaxation centers, counseling units and long retirement age to improve their economic conditions. Despite all these efforts towards combating the socio-economic challenges of the aged in the State and the society at large, it still lingers. The failure of these efforts to ensure stability and victory for the aged in the state is been characterized by lack of commitment from various quarters. Laws that have been made to protect humans (aged) (is not an exception) are hardly implemented. According to Ada (2002), the ministry of social work which was created to better the lots of the aged and other weaker sex (women and children) is capable of executing its mandate and consequently, it has been reacting to incidents of abuse meted out to the aged rather than taking concrete steps towards stopping such discriminatory and abusive practices. Another factor as to why this phenomenon still lingers is that, the resources for the programmes to be executed for the benefits of the aged are hijacked by petit bourgeoisie who head those programmes. For the conditions of the aged to be improved, the stakeholders should be committed, transparent and sincere in their efforts towards combating the socio-economic challenges of the aged in the state and the society at large. This involves the efforts of both the state, federal and cooperate bodies. 2.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK In analyzing any phenomenon, there is always a theoretical framework used in explaining that phenomenon. The study attempts to give overview of key theories, that is conflict theory and modernization theory in which, one provides a better explanatory values to the socioeconomic challenges of the aged in the society. CONFLICT THEORY This theory has its origin form the works of Karl Marx, which takes the orientation of dialectical materialism. According to Karl Marx, man is an exclusive being that is born and developed in the society. He is socialized based on the complex series of interaction and relationship, which help pattern his perception of events and consciousness. Conflict theory has the major assumption that there ore groups in the society that have different interest. In this respect, the theory believes social arrangements tend to benefit some groups at the expense of others. Because of the existence of different groups with different interest, the political and likelihood of conflict is always present. Thus, the privilege position of the upper class generally leads to better health and vigour and to less likelihood of dependency in old age. Affluence cannot forestall aging indefinitely, but it can soften the economic hardship faced by later years. By contrast, working- class jobs often carry greater hazards to health and a greater risk of disability. Aging will be particularly difficult for those who suffer job related injuries or illness. Working-class people also depend more heavily on social security benefits and private pension programmes. During inflationary times, their relatively fixed incomes from these sources hardly keep pace with escalating cost of food, housing utilities and other necessities (Atchley, 1985). Conflict theorists have noted that, the transition from agricultural economies to industrialization and capitalism has always been beneficial for the elderly (aged). As a society’s production method change, the traditionally valued role of older people within the economy tends to erode. Although pension plans retirement pack ages and insurance benefits may be developed to assist older people. Those whose wealth allows them to access to investment fund can generate the greatest income for their later years, thereby, meeting-up the socio-economic challenges of the aged in the present day society (Dow, 1980; 75, Hendrick, 1982; Olson, 1982). The conflict approach views the treatment of older people in the society from a conflict perspective; the low status of older people is reflected in prejudice and discrimination against them, age segregation and unfair job practices. MODERNIZATION THEORY In the context to modernization theory, modernization does not mean merely the evolution of contemporary or present day society, it refers instead to a socio-cultural shift which began in the later part of the 1700s and which brought new ways of thinking about how best to pursue material progress in the form of more and better goods and a higher general level of living. The central thesis of modernization theory is that the processes that caused societies to evolve from rural and agrarian social and economic system to urban and industrial ones also caused change in the positions that older people occupy in the society and the esteem afforded to them both individually and as members of a social category. The direction of change is assumed to be for the worse (Haber and Gratfon, 1992) Anthropologist L. Simmons (1945) was probably one of the first researchers to address the issues of modernization effect on older people. Based on a cross cultural study of seventy one societies, he concluded that in relatively stable agricultural societies, elders usually occupy positions of favour and power, mainly because of the concept of seniority rights. But when the rate of change increases, Simmons said, older people lose other advantaged status. From the above discussion, modernization theory was adopted for the study. This is because; it best explains the socio-economic challenges of the aged in the society. Modernization brought about changes in attitudes towards the elderly in Africa; there is a complex relationship between aging and society. The social status of older people with a particular society as well as the cultural values, hence changes in economic, political and cultural values can affect the socio-economic status and characteristics of the elderly. However, the impact of modernization in the cultural roles and privileges of the aged are numerous; one of such is the access to knowledge through western education has led to a reduction in the power and privileges given to their accumulated wisdom of the elderly. Their knowledge and experience are seen as not directly relevant to the problems of the modern age because of the changes in the socio-economic aspect of the society in the socio-economic aspect of the society i.e. shift from tradition to modernity. Furthermore, when the rate of changes increases older people lose their advantage status. It is against this background that modernization theory best explains the socio-economic challenges of the aged in the society, following the shift from agrarian society to complex modern society. FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE ON AGE A functionalist perspective on age is provided by the work of Talcott Parsons (1954, first published 1942). As in other areas, Parsons related age differences to the overall functioning of the social system. He believed that differences in the social roles associated with age groups were vital for the smooth functioning of society. However, he did accept that in US society there can be tensions between age groups. Industrial societies do, however, bring problems for the elderly. Parsons (1954) noted that the elderly have less status in US society than in most other types of society. Once children have grown up and men have retired, the elderly lose their most important social roles. In addition, they may be relatively isolated from their children who tend to focus more on their marriage partners and their own children than they do on their parents. Parsons therefore said that by comparison with most other societies the United States assumes an extreme position in the isolation of old age from participation in the most important social structures and interests. Parsons did acknowledge, however, that the significance of old age differences varies within society. For example, farming families tend to have less separation of generations than other families in the USA. Both adolescents and the elderly can make some contribution to running a farm and this can make some contribution to running a farm and this can reduce the structural isolation of the elderly. Parsons’ views have been widely criticized. Jenny Hockey and Allison James note that his theory has been attacked for its determinism, its overemphasis on conformity and consensus and neglect of inequalities’ (2003). Although Parsons acknowledged that adolescents can rebel against their parents, according to his theory they seem to do so simply because the social structure stress that youths actively and creatively produce substructures rather than passively act out roles ascribed to them by society. Apart from rebellious adolescents, Parsons assumes that different age groups conform to generally agreed roles. However, postmodern theories suggest that age differences are breaking down; feminist theories criticize Parsons for assuming that women both are and should be socialized into ‘female’ roles as mothers and housewives; while conflict theories stress that Parsons ignores the conflict and exploitation involved in relationships between age groups. INTERPRETATIVE PERSPECTIVE ON AGE Both conflict and feminist perspectives on age are critical of the idea that age can be seen solely in biological and chronological terms. Age cannot be understood simply in terms of scientific facts, but instead must be understood in its social context. Indeed, all sociological perspectives believe that an understanding of society is crucial to an understanding of age. Interpretative approaches place particular emphasis upon the meanings attached to age. As Jane Pilcher says, interpretative perspectives are concernedwith understanding the meaning social phenomena have for individuals and with the process through which individuals interpret and understand the world. Interpretative approaches place less emphasis than conflict and feminist perspectives on the way social structures (such as class and patriarchy) shape those meanings. Instead, they tend to see the meanings as shaping the social world and affecting the behaviour of members of society. Thus interpretative sociologists are interested in the meanings attached to categories such as childhood, youth or old age, and the effects that those meanings have. Interpretative perspectives have therefore tended to support the idea that the age categories are a social construct – they are the product of social definitions, not natural, biological categories. Social constructionism has influenced other sociological approaches examined in this chapter including that of Aries. Prout and James (1990, discussed in Pilcher, 1995)sees interpretative sociology as influencing the sociology of age in two main ways: 1. It has led to the questioning of commonsense ideas about age. For example, it has questioned ideas about the inevitability of childhood as a period when children must be highly dependent on parents and of old age as a time when the quality of people’s lives deteriorates. 2. It has encouraged examination of the social world from the perspective of its participants, including disempowered groups such as children. Thus, for example, it has stimulated studies which take children seriously as social actors in their own right. The ideas behind interpretative perspectives on age – that age categories are largely social constructs, that commonsense views of age can be questioned, and that age can be studied from the viewpoint of those in all age groups – have been very influential. There is a good deal of overlap between interpretative and other perspectives in sociology. Many sociologists primarily influenced by other perspectives (including conflict theory, feminism and postmodern) have accepted at least some aspects of interpretative approaches. For example, Gannon (1999), while primarily seeing age from a feminist perspective, was influenced by interpretivism when studying the different meanings of old age for men and women. Similarly, predominantly interpretative approaches have been influenced by other perspectives in sociology.   CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction The chapter discusses the methods used in carrying out this research project. Methodology here explains a systematic, organised series of steps that ensure maximum objectivity and consistency in studying a problem (Schaefer, 2005). The usefulness of methodology in social science research is its tendency to serve as a guide for reliability and validity for the research findings. 3.2 Study Area The location of this study is Benue State of Nigeria. However, due to the wide geographical spread of the area which could be very difficult to cover within such a limited time, Makurdi (the Benue State capital city) is chosen as the main area of the study. The metropolitan nature of Makurdi makes it very suitable for this study since most of the aged are also found in this area. Makurdi town serves as the capital city of Benue State as well as the local government headquarters of Makurdi local government. It has a total population of over 293,398 out of which 157,295 are males, while 140,103 are females (2006 census). • Geographical: Makurdi town is situated at the narrow end of the River Benue where the rail bridge is constructed, Makurdi lies on both banks of the River Benue. It is bounded on the West and North by Lafia, Keana and Doma Local Government of Nasarawa State. On the east by Guma local government and on the South by both Gwer and Gwer-West Local Governments. According to Mr.Obunna, the origin of Makurdi town is a labour camp established about 1910 or soon after in connection with the survey of the eastern railway and the search for a sit for the bridge over the Benue River. The town proper was founded in 1913 under the government messenger, Audu Dan Afoda a Yoruba man from Lokoja the capital of present Kogi State who was sent by the provincial government from Ibi as an intermediary between the government and the campers during the construction of rail line from Enugu to Makurdi and between the government and the indigenous Tiv Community. The new town was rapidly populated by Hausa, Jukun and Nupe traders, with the completion and opening of the railway line from Enugu to Makurdi in 1925, Makurdi not only became a railway terminus but also numerous Igbo and Yoruba came to settle in the town. • Social: As a metropolitan in nature, it has people of diverse cultural background, prominent among the tribes or ethnic groups in Makurdi are Hausa, Igbo, Yourba, Jukun, Idoma, Nupe, Kabawa, Etulo, Alago etc and the indigenous and dominant Tiv tribe. Though the Tiv language and culture which is same consideration degree of cultural infusion for instance it is not surprising to see a Tiv man dressed in Hausa or Yoruba dress as well as speak Hausa and Yoruba languages and vice versa. • Economic: Makurdi is dominated by farmers, crops such as yam; soya-beans, corn, groundnut etc. are produced in the local government in a large quantity. Also commerce constitutes the main stay or revenue generation to the State. The township has fallen back on the establishment of markets and motor parks where its generate revenue, so the township has established market at North Bank, Wadata, High level and Wurukun. There are also small scale industries springing up in the township. Rice Milling, poultry, local poultry, leather works, sculpturing weaving and yam flour mills. • Political: As an administrative headquarters, the township is surrounded with the following Federal and State establishments. Tarka Foundation edifice, the two bridges across River Benue, the State University, Federal University of Agriculture, Zoological garden, Federal and State Secretariat. Others include the Police Zone 4 Headquarters and State Command, Nigeria; Army School of Military Engineering (NASME), the 72 Para Battalion of the Nigerian Army, Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSDC), IBB Square, Aper Aku Stadium among others. 3.3 Sampling Technique The purpose of sampling is to obtain from a population a manageable and yet meaningful responses for one’s research. This study aims at eliciting quantitative information pertaining to the socio-economic challenges of the aged in Makurdi L.G.A. In this regards a random sampling was done so as to conduct the research within the limit of time, money and manpower resources. For the purpose of this research, the researcher divided Makurdi Township into five (5) areas. These areas covered North Bank, High Level, Ankpa Quarters and Akpehe respectively. Simple random sampling is used in the selection of the actual participants. In simple random sampling, the choice of element is completely left to choice factor (Agburu, 2001). In other words, each member of the population has an equal calculable and non-zero chance of being chosen. The choice of this technique is based on the fact that it gives every member of the population equal chance of being selected and therefore fair and reasonable in generalisation. In order to arrive at the One Hundred and Fifty (150) respondents, using random sampling technique, the researcher randomly selected twenty-five (25) respondents in each of the five selected areas of study.   3.4 Instruments of Data Collection The major methods of data collection used for this study was a set of questionnaire and an in-depth interview which was carried out on the selected council wards. The questionnaire method which is the major among the two method used is chosen as a preferred technique because its elaborate and a subtle process of transmitting information from the respondents to the researcher. The questionnaire was divided into two (2) sections, Section “A” seeks information on socio-demographic attributes of respondents, and Section “B” contains questions on the causes and socio-economic challenges of the aged. Another set of questions were administered to key informants who were traditional rulers on a separate interview schedule. Through these methods, data was collected for the study. 3.5 Method of Data Analysis This research work employs simple statistical tools of data analysis such as tables, frequencies and percentages to present and analyse the data collected. Respondents are asked to choose from the available alternatives on each questions in the questionnaire, the alternative that suits their opinion on the question. In the process of computing and analysing the data which is presented in the tables, the alternative with the highest percentage responses is adopted as a widely accepted opinion on the question or issue. Discussion of findings shall be done based on the themes captured in the objectives of the study.   CHAPER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Introduction This chapter is concerned with the presentation of data collected for the study, essentially the demographic data as well as the general information on the socio-economic challenges of the aged (old people) in Makurdi local government area of Benue State. The data is presented in line with the objectives and research questions set for the study. 4.2 Socio-Demographic Data of Respondents In this section, various demographic variables of respondents deemed relevant are presented. These include; Age, Sex, Marital status, Educational qualifications, occupation and religious affiliation of the respondents.   Table 1: Sex Distribution of Respondents Sex No of Respondents Percentage (%) Male 75 62.5 Female 45 37.5 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 Table 4.1 above shows the sex distribution of respondents. The data shows that 75 (62.5%) of the respondents were male. While that of the female respondents were 45 (37.5%). This means that men by nature of their prominent role in problem solving are more willing to participate in research of this kind. Also, the males were more available than the female counterparts in the course of this study. Table 4.2: Marital Status of Respondents Marital Status No of Respondents Percentage (%) Single 42 35.00 Married 59 49.00 Divorced 19 16.00 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 The data in table 4.2 indicates that majority 59 (49%) of the respondents are married, while a minority of 19 (16%) of the respondents are divorced. Though 42 (35%) of the respondents are single. This indicates that, the married people participated more in the research, probably due to the fact that, they have adequate knowledge about the challenges of the aged in the society, thus, there is a substantial difference in distribution of respondents by marital status. Table 4.3: Age Distribution of Respondents Age No of Respondents Percentage (%) 35-45 25 21.00 46-55 20 17.00 56-65 42 35.00 66-75 21 17.00 76 and above 12 10.00 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 From the above table 25 (21%) of the respondents fell under the age category 35-4 years, 20 (17%) fell under the ages of 46-55 years, on the other hand, 42 (35%) of the respondents fell under the age bracket of 56-65 years, while 21 (17.5%) of the respondents were under the age category of 66-75 years whereas 12 (10%) of the respondents fell under the age category of 76 years and above. The implication of these findings is that respondents between the ages 56-65 years participated more in the research, an indication that old people are more perhaps concerned about the problems of the old in the society since they are the most category of population directly involved and/or affected. Table 4.4: Educational Distribution of Respondents Level of Education No of Respondents Percentage (%) Primary Education 27 32.5 Secondary Education 45 37.5 Tertiary Education 18 15.00 Informal Education 30 25 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 The above data shows the educational attainment of the respondents, the data indicates that, majority of 45 (37.5%) of the respondents have attained a secondary education and a significant number of respondents 30 (25%) acquired informal education, 27 (22.5%) of the respondents acquired primary education, while minority of 18 (15%) has tertiary education. This indicated that, the more educated one is, the better equipped he/she is in handling research questionnaires and expressing his or herself in research of this kind. Table 4.5: Occupational Distribution of Respondents Occupation No of Respondents Percentage (%) Farming 20 16.00 Trading 33 27.5 Civil Servant 67 56.00 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 The above table shows the occupational distribution of respondents. The data shows that, majority of the respondents 67 (56%) are Civil servants, while a minority of 20 (16%) of the respondents are farmers. Also, a substantial number 33 (27.5%) of the respondents are traders. By implication, Civil servant are more in number than traders and farmers. This is because the area of study is urban in nature and the people residing in this area are predominantly Civil servants.   Table 4.6: Religious Distribution of Respondents Religion No of Respondents Percentage (%) Christianity 89 74.00 Islam 4 3.00 Traditional Religion 27 23.00 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 Table 4.6 above shows the religious distribution of respondents. The data shows that 89 (74%) of the respondents were Christians whereas 4 (3%) of the respondents were Islam, while 27 (23%) of the respondents belongs to other religious affiliation, specifically, the traditional religion. This indicates that, Christians dominate this area of study. 4.3 The Socio-economic Challenges of the Aged This section presents the socio-economic challenges of the aged in Makurdi local government area of Benue State.   Table 4.7: Respondents View on the Social Challenges of the Aged Social Challenges No of Respondents Percentages (%) Social Isolation 32 26.67 Urbanization 28 23.33 Lack of Security 14 11.67 Discrimination 39 32.5 Others 7 5.83 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 From the table presented above, it is observed that, 32 (26.67%) of the respondents were of the view that, social isolation is one of the social challenges faced by the aged in Makurdi metropolis, 28 (23.33%) of the respondents stated that the social challenges of the aged is the influx of urbanization and modernity, the data further shows that, 14 (11.67%) of the respondents opined that, lack of security is another social challenge faced by old people in Makurdi metropolis. Means while 39 (32.5%) of the respondents were of the opinion that, discrimination is the major social challenges faced by the aged in the society. Other respondents who constituted 7 (5.83%) of the respondents were of the opinion that, there are other social challenges faced by the aged in the society which include; the influx of individualism, unemployment etc By implication, the major social challenge of the age is the high level of discrimination which they faced today; the study clearly shows that, there are other social challenges of the aged in the society. Table 4.8: Respondents View on the Economic Challenges of the Aged in the Society Economic Challenges No of Respondents Percentage (%) Western Education 21 17.5 Unemployment 26 21.67 High Standard of Living 69 57.5 High rate of Inflation 4 3.33 Total 120 100 Source: Field Survey, 2014 Data from the above shows the economic challenges of the aged in Makurdi metropolis. The data indicates that, 21 (17.5%) of the respondents were of the opinion that, the effect and prevalence of western education is the economic challenge faced by the aged in the society. The data further shows that 26 (21.67%) of the respondents said unemployment is also the economic challenge faced by the aged in the society. On the other hand, 69 (57.5%) of the respondents affirm that, high standard of living is another challenge faced by the aged in the society, while 4 (3.33%) of the respondents believed that, high rate of inflation is also the economic challenges which the old people are facing in Makurdi metropolis of Benue State. By implication, the study reveals that the major economic challenge faced by the aged in Makurdi metropolis is high standard of living, although there are other economic challenges faced by the aged in Makurdi metropolis as put forward by the respondents. 4.4 Discussion of Findings The major objective of this study is to assess the socio-economic challenges of the aged in Makurdi metropolis as well as suggest possible ways of reducing these challenges. The data was collected, presented and analysed in line with the above objectives. The demographic data of the respondent’s shows that majority of the sampled population aged 56-65 years representing 35% participated more in the research. However, other age category of respondents between 35-45 years, 46-55 years, 66-75 years and 76 years and above equally participated in the research. The educational attainment of respondents reveals that 45 (37.5%) out of the (120) sampled population attain Secondary school education. This means the sampled respondents had low level of education. On the level of the social challenges of the aged in Makurdi metropolis, it was discovered that, there are social challenges facing the aged in the society. However, the study revealed that, the major social challenge faced by the aged in the society is high rate of discrimination of the aged by the young generation. This is represented and justified in table 4.7 where 39 (32.5%) of the respondents were of the opinion that discrimination of the aged is the major social challenge faced by the aged in the society. An examination of the economic challenges faced by the aged in the society indicates that, there are several economic challenges of the aged in the society such as the Impact of Western education, Unemployment, High standard of living, High rate of Inflation. This is in line with Denga (2005), who identified discrimination as one of the social challenges of the aged in the society. Similarly, Haber (1983), Bansell (1956) variously enumerated the challenges of the aged such as Unemployment, High standard of living, western education among others as contained in the findings.   CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION This study was initiated to take into consideration the assessment of the socio-economic challenges of the aged in Makurdi metropolis of Benue state. In order to arrive at the examination of the study, the research has been divided and organised into five chapters. 5.1 Summary The fist chapter dealt with the background of the study, it tries also to present a coherent statement of problem of the study as well as objectives and research question, significance, scope of the study and definition of terms. In chapter two literature review and theoretical framework was reviewed. However, the concept of aging, factors that facilitates aging, the importance of the aged in the society, the socio-economic challenges of the aged as well as the efforts towards combating the socio-economic challenges of the aged were examined. Some sociological theories were used for the study; however, the modernisation theory was selected as theoretical framework for the study.  In chapter three the study methodology include instrument of data collection, the method of data analysis as well as sample procedure were selected. The method of questionnaire and interview were adopted for the collection of data while information collected was presented in a questionnaire from with the use of simple percentage and frequency tables. The fourth chapter of the research deals with the presentation and analysis of the data collected, which were based on respondents from the designed instruments of questionnaire. 5.2 Conclusion Based on the findings, the following conclusion can be drawn that, discrimination of the aged is the major social challenge of the aged in Makurdi metropolis. Other social challenges include Social isolation, Urbanization, Lack of security as well as other social challenges. As regards to the second objective which is the assessment of the economic challenges faced by the aged in the society, study revealed that, there are lots of economic challenges of the aged in the society. Therefore, in order to arrive at the solution and solve these problems, the study has emerged with the following recommendations. 5.3 Recommendation The public should be sensitized and awareness campaign put in place to educate the people about the importance of the aged, which is very vital for social development, since they are the custodian of the customs and tradition in the society. The people should respect and honour the views of the aged, since their knowledge is based on their long lived experiences. By so doing, the conditions and life of the aged will be improved upon. There should be change in the attitude about the belief of the old people in the society, since there are misconceptions about the aged in the society. The general society should bear in mind the importance of the knowledge of the aged and how it is relevant for the socialization of the younger generation in regards to the customs, norms and values of the society. The government, Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the general public should have fora for the discussions on the importance of the old people, such fora should emphasis on necessary policies and programmes that will improve the lives of the old so as to enhance their maximum participation in the development and growth of the society.  REFERENCES Abraham, B. A. (1940), The Tiv People. England: Stephen Austin and Sons Ltd. Bohannan, P. And Laura, (1968), The Tiv Economy. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. Bottomore, T.B (1965), Classes in Modern Society. London: Goerge Allen and Unwin Ltd. Downes, R.M. (1965), The Tiv Tribes. London: Gregg International Publishers. Durkheim E. (1965), The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. New York: Free Press. Hogan, M. (2006), Academic Dictionary of Sociology. New Deihi: Academic India Publishers. Igbum, V. (2003), Aspect of Tiv Traditional Religion: “An Appraisal” Makurdi Journal of Arts and Culture Vol, 5. (77- 86) Black Heritage Publication. Jibo M. (1991), From Makir Dzakpe to Alfred Torkula: The Impact of Tor Tiv Institution on the Political, Economic and socio- Cultural Life of the People, Unpublished Paper. Jibo, M. (1993), Tiv Politics Since 1959: Zaria. Ahmadu Bello University Press. Lloyd, P.C. (1967), Africa in Social Change: Penguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth, Middlesex England. Makar, T. (1994), The History of Political Change among the Tiv in the 19th and 20th centuries. Fourth Dimension Pubishing Co. Ltd. Enugu, Nigeria. Moti, J.S and Wegh, S.F (2001), An Encounter between Tiv Religion and Christianity. Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd. Rubingh, E. (1969), Sons of Tiv: A Study of the Rise of the Church among the Tiv of Central Nigeria. Michigan: Baker Book Co. Grand Rapids. Rupert E. (1965) Translator and Annotator: Akiga’s Story; “The Tiv Tribe as seen by one of its members”. London: Oxford University Press. Wuam, T. (2006) The Tiv Story. Ibadan: Polygraphics Ventures Ltd. Yuhe, D.V (1976) The Phenomenon of Secularization and Christian Message in Tiv Land. Rome.   APPENDIX QUESTIONNAIRE SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA Instruction: Tick [] as appropriate. 1. Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ] 2. Marital Status: Single [ ] Married [ ] Divorce [ ] 3. Age: 35-45 [ ] 46-55 [ ] 56-65 [ ] 66-75 [ ] 75 and above [ ] 4. Educational qualifications: Primary education [ ] Secondary education [ ] Tertiary education [ ] Higher education [ ] 5. Occupation: Farming [ ] Trading [ ] Civil servant [ ]Teaching[] 6. Religion: Christianity [ ] Islam [ ]Traditional religion [ ] SECTION B: General question on the problems of the aged (old) in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State 7. Does old age minimizes somebody's social and economic opportunities? Yes [ ] No [ ] 8. Are the aged in your society being supported and cared for? Yes [ ] No [ ] 9. What is the kind of care and support for the aged in Makurdi Metropolis? Psychological[ ] Health[ ] Economic[ ] 10. What is the level of the availability of service that serves the older people (aged) in Makurdi? Okay [ ] Not okay [ ] 11. Do you agree that malnutrition could trigger the aging process of an individual? Yes [ ] No [ ] 12. Are the aged faced with social challenges in Makurdi metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ] 13. Does stress facilitate the aging process of an individual? Yes[ ] No [ ] 14. Are the aged faced with economic challenges? Yes [ ] No [ ] 15. Does the aged play significant roles in ensuring stability in the society? Yes [ ] No [ ] 16. Are the aged neglected and discriminated against in Makurdi? Yes [ ] No[ ] 17. Does stress cause aging? Yes [ ] No [ ] 18. An era of economic down turn (poverty) may accelerate aging? Yes [ ] No [ ] 19. Suggest possible ways to improve the socio-economic challenges of the aged in the society……………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………